Esperance Blog

King's Skink - Egernia kingii

2008-05-26T11:12:00.012+08:00

A big, fast and sociable reptile

I first encountered this skink when walking on a rocky outcrop near Albany, Western Australia. I never saw one, but heard them scuttle away into the bush upon my approach. At that stage I had not noticed any around the Esperance region, but one day a large female payed me a visit; liked what she saw and stayed. She was attracted to my concrete veranda and a metal skid I had placed on the ground with a northerly aspect, so plenty of sun, but not the hot afternoon sun. The skid was 6' long x 15" wide and 2" in height and had openings at both ends, as far as Mrs King was concerned it was perfect and she made it her home. She arrived in late autumn and shortly after produced two young who would rest on her back as she sunbaked as winter approached. She over-wintered with them in her new home.

King's Skink - Egernia kingii

My apologises for the poor photography, but despite the three years she and numerous off-spring have lived here, they remain ever watchful and will disappear back under their skid if I stop at a window to watch them. So photos have all been taken from a distance and through a closed window, even then it was very difficult as they have excellent eyesight and are extremely shy.

The visiting male King's Skink and the slightly larger female

The large female is well over half a metre long and possibly as much as 600 mm in length. These lizards are live breeders and she has produced twins, twice a year, with the young usually remaining with her for around 12 months and sometimes even longer (she now has only a single annual litter of 4 or 5 young). She will come and go during the warmer weather, but is never away longer than 2-3 weeks. The male will visit occasionally, but does not remain long and is usually gone after a few days. However several generations living together are not unusual, although those nearing sexual maturity leave to presumably start their own families, nevertheless some do return for short periods and are accepted back into the family. Probably limited food and suitable accommodation determine the number that can remain for any length of time.

King's Skinks being sociable

In a previous post of mine concerning another large skink, the Western Blue-tongued Lizard (click item 34 in right-hand column), I produced a photograph of an aboriginal lizard trap. On other granite outcrops in the region I have come across a number of these traps and believe they were primarily used to trap the King's Lizard, which is not only shy, but very fast and would have been difficult to catch by other means.

The speckled coloration is similar for the young and adults

King's Skink - Egernia kingii

A young King's Skink who slipped into the house and took shelter in a box

Despite the large size of these lizards, I have only seen them near their nest site and although they leave highly distinctive tracks when crossing sandy areas, I have not seen these elsewhere in the district, so presume these lizards are not common.

Typical tracks of the King's Skink, note the neat straight furrow

Bird-dropping Spider, Celaenia excavata

2008-04-22T11:19:00.018+08:00

How do these spiders that have no web and hardly ever move, catch their prey?

Unlike the fast moving spider in my previous thread, this spider is quite the reverse, seldom moving at all. It is camouflaged as a bird dropping during the day to be overlooked by predators that might be tempted to eat it. However at night it will hang up side down in an exposed position with its front legs outstretched, just waiting for something to fly into them.

The Bird-dropping Spider Celaenia excavata

Now spiders with large webs often have trouble catching insects that refuse to fly into them, so how does this spider get something to literally fly into its arms? Well this bird-dropping spider does do it, and not just any insect, but a moth of a specific gender and often a particular species! It is hunting a male moth that is attracted to the pheromones the spider releases that mimic those of a female moth ready to mate. So the male moth thinking he has located a nice receptive lady, ends up in the spiders deadly grasp.

A hunting Bird-dropping Spider

The deception of this spider however does not end there, for there is another that will guarantee success and its evening meal. The male moths do not fly directly to the female, but will initially circle around her to make sure of her presence, for this purpose he has reasonably good eyesight. Now on the photo below squint your eyes and imagine it is nighttime with a shinning moon, and what do you see? A moth, with the white parts of the spider's front legs and abdomen appearing like wings and the central portion of the spider's abdomen, the moth's body; resulting in the moth willingly flying into her waiting arms.

Squint your eyes to see the moth

Although this bird-dropping spider may not look much, it has evolved three highly sophisticated means of not only deceiving predators but successfully attracting prey.

This specific Bird-dropping Spider, Celaenia excavata, is one of the larger bird-dropping spiders with the females growing to around 15 mm (excluding legs), but like their predators, people too seldom notice them, although they may spot her egg sacs. These are spherical and almost as large as the spider herself, which she attaches to strong silken threads. The male spider is only a quarter the size of the female and is seldom, if ever seen.

Looking after her egg-sacs

Bird-dropping Spider, Celaenia excavata

Celaenia excavata is a widespread Australian (more common in Eastern States) and New Zealand species, but has taken to citrus and fruit orchards as a preferred habitat. It is often so common in this man-made environment that it is also known as the Orchard Spider.

The rear end

If you are fortunate to encounter one of these spiders, take a minute to consider how sophisticated they are, as a master of deception they have few equals, being exceptionally well adapted to the niche they have carved for themselves.

Banded Orb-weaving Spider, Argiope trifasciata

2008-03-24T18:23:00.014+09:00

A fast moving spider in a football jumper

The Banded Orb-weaving Spider, also known as a Banded Garden Spider, has a bright banded yellow, white and black abdomen, but instead of standing out like a sore thumb, in its habitat it blends in remarkably well. This spider constructs a modest sized vertical web (about knee high) amongst sedge or grass, which provides an environment of green, yellow and black streaks, the perfect background to her camouflage. Here the large female remains motionless, head down day and night, remaining safe and overlooked by most predators.

The Banded Orb-weaving Spider, Argiope trifasciata

The underside is just as colourful

When under threat the female banded spider will suddenly drop to the ground and seek shelter in the tangled vegetation. But should an insect fly into her web, she rockets from her resting-place, and has the intruder silk wrapped within a blink of an eye. It is then bitten on or near the head, after which she will return to the centre of the web until her venom has paralysed the intruder. She will then return and wrap her meal even more securely.

The first paralysing bite into a March Fly

The female Banded Spider is around 2 cm in length (excluding legs), so a reasonably large orb-weaving species. It is a little larger than the closely related St. Andrews Cross Spider, Argiope aetherea. This spider is well known for the bright white cross made from non-capture silk in the centre of the web, called the stabilimenta. The spider rests on this formation also in the shape of a diagonal cross, with its legs outstretched and arranged in pairs.

The Banded Spider also rests in the shape of a diagonal cross, but seldom weaves a stabilimenta, or if so, only a partial one. A study published in the scientific magazine Behavioral Ecology suggests that the bright-white stabilimenta is made to make the web more visible to flying birds and so reduce web damage from accidental collisions. It is a trade-off however, as the web also becomes more visible to flying insects and so the spider's catch is reduced.

In the Esperance region, the Banded Spider seldom weaves a stabilimenta, possibly because they construct their nests close to the ground where local birds seldom fly. Whereas the St. Andrews Cross Spider when mature (an Eastern States species not found in WA), always construct a stabilimenta, but they generally build their webs at a higher elevation and more likely in the flight-path of birds.

A partial white stabilimenta at bottom right of center

Banded Orb-weaving Spider, Argiope trifasciata

In Australia the Banded Spider is only recorded in Queensland and WA, but is found in many other parts of the world with a major exception of Europe. They do vary slightly in size, but coloration and behaviour are similar, so is the low-lying habitat amongst grass and sedges, so the international banded spider is not currently considered evolved sufficiently (due to their wide separation) into different species.

A popular habitat is a low-lying sedge area, surrounded by grasstrees

The male banded spider is a fraction the size of the female (usually between a third and a quarter) and sometimes with other males, can be found on the outer edge of the web. It is very hazardous however being a suitor to the large female, as many males end up being her lunch; those that do escape often have to shed a leg or two to distract her in the process.

A fully intact male Banded Spider

A male Banded Spider who has lost the back legs escaping the female

For reasons possibly related to nursery duties, the female will leave her web unattended. On one such occasion a very bold male took her place in the centre of the web, but alas his triumph was short lived, as next day he looked like a silk-wrapped snack.

The female Banded Spider snacking on the unfortunate male

Despite having very effective venom for paralysing invertebrates, banded spiders are harmless to humans preferring to flee and play dead rather than bite. And unless you are looking in the right place, you will probably never see one, but should you be so lucky, it is worth checking this spiders activities daily, for besides being very colorful, they are also interesting to know.

The underside of the female Banded Spider, note the broad spinneret region for fast wrapping

Western Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes dorsalis

2008-03-01T17:26:00.014+09:00

The best known burrowing frog. Once heard, never forgotten.

It doesn't matter if you are tone deaf or even hard of hearing as the 'bonk' - 'bonk' banjo like call is difficult to confuse with anything else. And if in their territory you have reasonable pools of water, you will hear it just about every night. I even had one hopeful banjo frog who had found a sunken plastic container full of water for the birds, he bonked loudly for over three weeks trying to attract a lady to his little paradise. But it was to no avail, being over 100 metres from an actual swamp, the banjo ladies were not taken in by calls of love from a dry sandy area. Eventually the frog gave up and presumably joined the competition at the swamp.

So you hear the call and say to yourself, I know that - it’s a western banjo frog, so you go looking for it. Now your troubles really start as tracking the actual frog from their calls is no easy thing to do, and most times given up in frustration, even when you know it is within a metre or two. Most frogs are very well camouflaged and their calls deceptive, particularly relating to distance from you. This is often made even more difficult when several frogs are calling from the same area. Fortunately they are quite distinctive when seen, so I just go looking and usually find them when they are moving around.

Western Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes dorsalis

I often think of the banjo frog as a bandit, just take note the distinctive mask-like eye patch that is underlined by a glandular white stripe, next note the bulge (oval gland) on each thigh. Despite other marking variations, these features are common to all of these frogs. Also with most of these banjo frogs there is a strongly marked pale stripe running down their back and the groin is usually crimson. The above distinctive features make it difficult to confuse it with other species, particularly when it is also the only Limnodynastes species in southern WA.

A bandit-looking western banjo frog - also note the raised thigh glands

Frogs from the genus Limnodynastes occur in areas where water can collect in deepish pools and therefore tend to be more common in the higher rainfall regions of eastern and northern Australia. These frogs differ from other frogs by constructing floating rafts of foam, into which the eggs are laid and fertilised. Once the tadpoles hatch they fall through to the water below. In my district there is little permanent water, but due to the dominant winter rainfall, many ephemeral swamps usually fill with water to provide suitable breeding habitat. Although frogs will move from one swamp to another, they are seldom found far from these areas. During long hot dry periods they will dig a burrow and await the winter rains.

"I don't think he saw me"

The range of coloration and markings amongst frogs of the same species is often remarkable, even within a small area. I have written about this before in relation to the Slender Tree Frog, Litoria adelaidensis 07. Frog colouration where there was a distinct correlation between the frog markings/coloration and habitat. Interestingly, the same thing seems to occur with the Western Banjo Frog. In the all these photographs, please note not only the coloration of the frog, but the habitat background, they are remarkably similar.

Probably the most extreme color variation of the banjo frog, but look at the sandy background

At the other extreme, these banjo frogs do not get much darker

The range of the Western Banjo Frog is just a little larger than the WA Wheatbelt zone, extending from the Murchison River (500 km north of Perth) to around 200 km east of Esperance. However there are other Banjo Frogs in Australia, so their call is known far and wide. The Eastern Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes dumerillii occurs from Adelaide to around Brisbane including most of Victoria and Tasmania. Then there is the Giant Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes interioris that inhabits central NSW and northern Victoria. And lastly the Northern Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes terraereginae that occurs from central NSW to the top of Cape York Peninsula. So if you like the sound of the banjo, there is plenty to keep you amused. Another name for this frog is Pobblebonk.

Western Banjo Frog, Limnodynastes dorsalis

Frogs are very reliant on suitable habitat and if that habitat is destroyed or altered, the frogs are often the first to suffer. Even if you have many frogs, if they are of the same species then you should be looking at providing greater diversity of habitat so other species can find a place too. Attracting frogs to your garden is much like attracting birds; it can be an absorbing hobby to see how many species you can accommodate. But it is important not to collect frogs from one area and introduce them to another, as a serious frog fungal disease can also be introduced by this means that can devastate frog populations and even kill entire species. So if you provide the habitat, they will move in of their own accord, where hopefully they can then build their numbers to spread to other suitable areas. This is a terrific way of being eco-friendly.

"Us frogs are really very friendly, plus we eat all the things you don't like"

Western Bearded Dragon, Pogona minor minor

2008-02-04T12:01:00.002+09:00

A lizard from the old world family Agamidae.

Agamidae are part of the infraorder Iguania, which is the very first branch of the lizard evolutionary tree, making them amongst the most primitive of lizards and are thought to represent the eastern Gondwana relative of the Iguania. Although amidst debate, these ancestral lizards are reasoned to have arisen in the South American continent and spread via Antarctica to the Indian subcontinent and Australia, both of which contain the largest number of endemic species.

The Australian agamid clades are concentrated in the more arid regions of Western, Northern and Central Australia with fewer species in the wetter and more heavily forested areas of Eastern Australia. This probably reflects the breaking up of Gondwana and the retreat of the forests as Australia dried whilst drifting north. It is during this period that agamids in Australia began to diversify and become more common in the fossil record. Pogona was one of these lizards!

Western Bearded Dragon, Pogona minor minor

The Western Bearded Dragon, Pogona minor minor is often simply referred to as Pogona minor (the second minor referring to its subspecies status) as it occupies most of WA, except for the northern region, the Nullarbor and the SW corner. Another subspecies, Pogona minor minima or the Abrolhos Bearded Dragon, only occupies the Houtman Abrolhos Islands. A third subspecies Pogona minor mitchelli is found in the far northern near coastal portion of WA.

Pogona minor is not a particularly large lizard, growing to a little over 15" (38 cm) in length including the tail, but going on its distribution it is obviously a very successful species and besides occupying a very large portion of WA, also extends into the western half of SA and the lower SW of the Northern Territory. The Eastern Bearded Dragon (a similar looking lizard from eastern Australia) abuts in the coastal Adelaide region. This eastern species, Pogona barbata, is a little larger than its western counterpart and differs by having several rows of large spines along its flanks, whereas the western bearded dragon has only one.

A mating pair of Western Bearded Dragons

All dragon lizards are egg layers and are often seen digging a nesting chamber where up to 12 eggs are deposited, after which the connecting tunnel is filled in. This activity can take several days and is often thought that she has abandoned the nest, but more often she is busy inside, evidenced by the opening being in-filled a day or two later. In good seasons the western bearded dragon can produce two or more clutches, making this nesting operation quite common and often observed.

Pogona minor digging the nesting chamber, and not impressed by my interest.
Hidden at last!

These lizards have a reputation of being lovers of the sun, preferring the more open arid regions and often seen sunbaking. But this is not quite correct as they require a narrow temperature range and when this is exceeded (as is often the case during summer), they seek shelter and are considerably less active. Dragon lizards are commonly seen perched on posts and other elevated positions during spring and early summer, this not only provides them with sunbaking opportunities, but a means to survey and maintain their breeding territory. They are also often seen sunbaking in autumn, but are seldom encountered during summer and then usually only early in the morning.

A disturbed sunbaking western bearded dragon reviewing the potential threat.

Pogona eat a variety of foods including vegetable matter like flowers and even seed, although insects and other invertebrates would make up the bulk of their diet, however the odd small, slow moving mammal would not be ignored.

Typical dragon surveying its territory for rivals, mates, predators and prey.

Western Bearded Dragon, Pogona minor minor

Dragon lizards are well known for their visual method of communication where head bobbing, leg and body lifting are commonly practised. Apparently each dragon species has its own procedures, but all aim to discourage other males or to attract a mate, but the most dramatic display is used in defence to deter a potential predator. Here the lizard will flatten its body which is turned towards the threat to make it appear bigger, the frill is fully extended with all spikes projecting away from the body and the mouth wide open to show a colorful interior. All bluff of course, but still very effective.

A well camouflaged western bearded dragon keeping a lookout from a dead tree trunk.

Unlike most skinks and geckos, dragon lizards do not shed their tails to escape from predators, but can run very fast with a sudden turn of speed, some even running bipedally like a crazed clown, plus they are very good at climbing, so probably suffer less predation. However unlike the blue-tongue lizards, they are nowhere near as common in the big cities unless there are large open spaces so they can keep an eye on their territory and use their speed to avoid predators.

All kids are cute, as it this young Pogona minor frolicking amongst the Trigger Plant flowers.

Australia is a land of reptiles, particularly in the more arid areas with unreliable rainfall and consequential irregular food supply; it nevertheless suits perfectly the biological make up of reptiles. Their more energy saving lifestyles, along with their lower requirements of food and water allow them to take advantage of the good times, whilst also surviving well the bad. So when you next look at a reptile, don't think of them as being primitive, but supremely well adapted. They were here long before we came onto the scene and will probably be around long after we depart. Many think reptiles are dumb, but this is certainly not the case, they have very good memories and some are very social, but the most striking thing about them is how accommodating they are if they live near you. Providing you don't threaten or interfere, most will treat you with great respect and will be no trouble at all. We should make room for more reptiles in our lives, for not only are they interesting and entertaining, but generally will eat the things we don't like. So get eco-friendly, help reptiles to help you!

Western Blue-tongued Lizard, Tiliqua occipitalis

2008-01-13T16:44:00.003+09:00

Australia's largest skinks, subfamily Tiliquinae or the Egernia Group

There are two genera (Egernia and Tiliqua) represented in Australia from the subfamily Tiliquinae, which include the largest skink species. However DNA research has indicated a more complex relationship resulting in new groupings of related skinks, of which Egernia and Tiliqua have been placed with the genus Cyclodomorphus to form the Egernia Group, all of which are represented in Australia. These skinks can grow to over half a metre in length (including the tail), some are highly sociable and all bear live young.

The ancestors of these skinks are thought to have originated in Africa sometime after the demise of the dinosaurs and gradually migrated to various parts of the world, eventually arriving in Australia during the Pliocene (1.6 to 5.3 million years ago), via multiple colonisations from Southeast Asia. Since then they have evolved to around 40 odd indigenous species, the most from Egernia (currently 28 species), Tiliqua 6 species and Cyclodomorphus 9 species.

Skinks in the genus Tiliqua are known as 'Blue-tongue' lizards as all have a large flat blue tongue that is not only used to discourage predators, but also to scent prey.

I have already written about one Tiliqua species, T. rugosa (see item 10. Stumpy-tail Lizard ), which is very common in the Esperance region. Tiliqua occipitalis, the Western Blue-tongued Lizard is the only other Esperance (Western Australia) member of this genus, and is far less common, particularly in the sandy heath zones (the most common habitat in the Esperance region). This blue-tongue is more common around granite outcrops, probably reflecting its preferred habitat providing shelter under rocks from feral cats and foxes, both known to take a heavy toll on local wildlife. However if they manage to survive, they can live 20 to 30 years.

A female Western Blue-tongued Lizard, Tiliqua occipitalis

In the southeastern States (SA, Vic, NSW & southern Qld), there is a similar Blue-tongue Lizard naturally called the Eastern Blue-tongue or Common Blue-tongue Lizard. This skink grows to a similar size as its western cousin, but differs in several respects. The first noticeable feature is the general coloration; the western has a yellowish/brown overall look, whereas the eastern is more silvery grey. The bands on the body and tail also differ, with 4-6 DARK bands on the body (nape to hips) for the western, as against 6-9 PALE body bands for the eastern. There are 3-4 encircling dark bands on the western blue-tongue's tail, whereas the eastern has 7-10 pale bands.

So the basic coloration and number of bands are the easiest way of telling these two species apart, although there can be considerable variation with the markings. Other differences involve the number of live young each species produce, with the eastern being the more prolific by producing up to 25 young, although around half that number would be the norm. The Western Blue-tongue by contrast only produce from 5-10 young, but they are larger at birth. Neither species devote much time to their offspring and the young usually disperse within a few days to lead independent lives.

Western Blue-tongued Lizard, note the overall brownish hue

There are differences between male and female blue-tongue lizards; most obvious is the size of the head! The male's head is much broader than the female, who usually also has a longer body and shorter limbs. The males are usually more aggressive, although both can put up a good display to deter predators. Besides a deep guttural hiss and a gaping pink mouth to reveal a flickering broad blue tongue, they (particularly the western species) can flatten themselves by spreading their ribs, which they then turn side on towards the predator to make them appear much larger.

A male Western Blue-tongued Lizard

It is commonly thought that all skinks shed their tail to distract a predator. However this is not the case with all the skinks from this group, T. rugosa, the Stumpy- tail Lizard, plus several Egernia species lack fracture planes in their vertebrae so are unable to do so. Other species in this group gradually lose their ability to discard their tails as they mature, but could do so when young.

The blue-tongue lizards have a very catholic diet eating soft plant matter, flowers and fruit, crunchy beetles and other insects, spiders, small lizards, even silly young birds who venture too close, in fact they will eat almost anything that is slow enough and will fit into its large mouth, this also includes garden snails which they are able to crush with their strong jaws, so placing fingers near their mouth is not a good idea. Their limitation regarding diet is governed by their small legs and large body, which apart from a short lunge, mean they are normally quite slow and usually only able to catch slower prey.

As a word of caution, if you are fortunate to have these skinks living in your garden, please do not use snail pellets as they will eat the dying slugs and snails and become poisoned themselves. Best to leave it to your blue-tongue lizards to control your slug/snail problem.

Always ready for the next meal

Western Blue-tongued Lizard, Tiliqua occipitalis

Besides cats, dogs and foxes; snakes and birds will take young lizards, plus I strongly suspect they were also on the aborigine's menu. On some of the less frequented rocky outcrops around Esperance, lizard traps can still be found, these would have been used to catch another very large skink (as big or bigger than the western blue-tongue), Egernia kingii or the King's Skink that looks a little like a goanna. It has longer legs than Blue-tongue Skinks and can run very fast (been clocked at over 3 metres a second), so difficult to catch. However a large granite slab could be dropped on them simply by removing the supporting rock (see photo below). Therefore not only could these traps be used to catch these fast skinks, but the elevated slab would also provide good accommodation for the slow moving blue-tongues, who could easily be captured by hand. So travelling bands of aborigines could camp near a rocky outcrop and likely catch an easy evening meal, resetting the trap upon leaving to entice another large lizard for capture when they return on another occasion.

An aboriginal lizard trap, about a metre long x half a metre wide. Some are larger and require two rocks to support the granite slab.

The Western Blue-tongue has an extensive distribution, from the WA mid west coast, the southern goldfields, over the boarder to occupy much of SA, even extending into the Northern Territory. This species is also found in western NSW, Qld and Victoria, although here they are becoming increasingly rare. It is primarily a lizard of arid regions and is not normally found in cool forests. Probably it is this more open, warmer and drier habitat preference that excludes it from the eastern species range, where forested areas are more extensive but are not a problem for the eastern blue-tongue providing the forested area is not too wet and sunlight can reach the forest floor.

This Western Blue-tongue is not being rude, just smelling the environment with its tongue

Blue-tongue lizards are quite common in most capital cities these days, possibly as there are fewer predators who wish to eat them, rather, most domestic animals are more curious and easily discouraged by their aggressive display. To attract them to your garden, place large logs, rocks and have plenty of ground cover in which they can shelter. Do not use snail pellets and watch out when mowing. Then besides a harmless, attractive, interesting and interactive garden resident, you also get a free creepy crawly and expert snail catcher to boot. Sounds like a good deal to me!

Western Grey Kangaroo, Macropus fuliginosus

2007-09-17T18:46:00.002+08:00

Kangaroos are an Australian icon and our best-known marsupial.

The two legged hopping type ancestor of present day kangaroos evolved in Australia around 8 million years ago, prior to that all marsupials walked on all fours. However marsupials have a long evolutionary history with the earliest known fossil dated to around 125 millions years ago (long before the dinosaurs disappeared). Now you may think that these fossils were discovered in Australia, but you would be wrong; they were discovered in China. The Australian line of marsupials are relatively late with the earliest known fossils only 55 million years old. It is thought that they had moved down via South America, into Antarctica during the warmer Gondwana period and then into Australia.

Around 15 million years ago, maybe due to climate change or the rise of placental mammals (the ancestors of cats, dogs, horses, cows and even us), the marsupials in most other parts of the world went extinct, leaving the island continent of Australia their remaining stronghold. A few marsupial species still survive in North and South America, plus Paupa New Guinea but none compare with the diversity of our marsupial fauna.

Mum and joey of the Western Grey Kangaroo, Macropus fuliginosus. The female joey will often remain with her mother long after leaving the pouch (over 2 years), even giving birth to a joey herself.

The Western Grey Kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus) is very similar to the Eastern Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) and was considered to be the same species for over 100 years. Of the differences between them, the most obvious is their fur color, the western greys being much darker and brown in color, whilst the eastern greys are in fact, more grey. The eastern grey is also slightly larger (reaching close to 2 metres in height), although not much larger than the westerns. Mature males of both species are noticeably bigger than the females.

The western grey's territory extends from the west coast of WA, right across the southern part of the continent into western NSW, Victoria and southwestern Queensland, preferring the more arid zones. Interestingly all the kangaroos on its namesake, Kangaroo Island in SA, are western greys. Eastern greys occupy parts of Tasmania to northeastern Queensland and just entering eastern SA, preferring the higher rainfall regions (above 250 mm a year).

The eastern and western grey kangaroo territories actually overlap in SA, NSW and Qld, but they are not known to interbreed (although in captivity they can). Other obvious differences is in their behaviour, with the western greys keeping to small family groups, whilst the easterns often collect in large mobs of both genders and different ancestry.

A small western grey kangaroo family group of mum, dad and junior.

Possibly due to habitat, these two kangaroo species have slightly different diets. The eastern greys preferring grass and soft herbaceous plants, whilst the westerns greys tend to consume more roughage gained from a variety of shrubs and even tree bark. The dietary requirements of the eastern greys has put them into more conflict with farmers, as their prime grazing areas have been taken over for agricultural purposes. Whereas the more arid living western roos can often cohabit with domestic stock on large rangelands. Also due to their drier habitat, the western greys have a lesser need of water, gaining most of their moisture from what they eat.

Interestingly, western grey kangaroos sexually mature (by several months) earlier than the eastern greys, allowing depleted populations to re-establish more quickly. The male of this species has the derogatory name of 'stinker' because unlike the eastern grey, it develops a strong unpleasant curry-like odor upon sexual maturity. Generally grey kangaroos in the wild live for around 10 years, but this time span can be doubled when kept in captivity, such are the high stress levels and other hardships of a large herbivore contending with drought, predators and human restrictions.

A pair of western greys getting their roughage from a heath habitat.

By hopping, rather than running on four legs, the kangaroos have actually developed a very efficient means of locomotion. To hop faster, the kangaroo simply maintains a similar number of hops per minute, but simply increases its stride, also it recycles up to 70% of the energy used, we on the other hand can only recycle around 20%, so they can maintain high speeds for lengthy periods. I have clocked grey roos effortlessly doing 45 kilometres per hour over several kilometres. Yet another advantage of hopping is it aids breathing; when landing air is expelled from the lungs and when jumping, air is automatically drawn into the mouth. So kangaroos are very well adapted to living in open semi-arid rangeland, grasslands or open woodlands.

From time to time there is speculation that the grey kangaroo is endangered; this is certainly not the case as both species occur in their multi-millions. However, the eastern grey kangaroo although still very numerous are probably less so due to their grazing areas being utilised for farming activities, but they are far from being a threatened species and can occur in plague proportions in favoured undisturbed habitats. Still, I think we are very fortunate to have such a large uniquely Australian animal that can survive in most bush habitats and often in close proximity to human occupation. These kangaroos are so common that many people have a very indifferent attitude toward them and often consider them vermin, nevertheless we and the world would be worse off without them and we should cherish and foster their well-being.

Mum and a very cute joey playing hide and seek.Western Grey Kangaroo, Macropus fuliginosus

Lacewings and Ant-lions

2007-08-13T14:34:00.007+08:00

Lovely to look at, but vicious to know

Lacewings and Ant-lions are predators, particularly in their larval stage. The better known ant-lion larvae live in dry sandy soils waiting for small invertebrates like ants to come by and fall into a depression and then into their massive grasping jaws. They are thus held whilst the ant-lion pierces their body with a tube, to then suck them dry. The world of insects can be a very grizzly place.

Other lacewing larvae tend to be more free moving, some patrolling the undersides of leaves in search of aphids and scale, whilst others live in rotting wood, disguising themselves with a covering of leaf/wood litter. Yet others live a semi-aquatic life on the edges of streams, feeding on aquatic invertebrates.

Both lacewing and ant-lions have wide Australian distribution, however the former are more common in the wetter eastern States, whilst the later are more common in the drier interior and western regions. As for species numbers, there are a lot of them. To give an idea, in the lacewing Order Neuroptera there are 6 superfamilies that are divided into 14 families, which in turn have a considerable number of genera and vastly more species. So yes, that little old ant-lion you once saw is only one of many species.

The well known ant-lion from the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea and the family Myrmeleontidae come in several guises, but basically they have big jaws and a body with maybe some legs for mobility. Around me is one that lives in the top couple of centimetres of sand, but instead of remaining stationary like most ant-lions, this one swims through the sand leaving snail-like trails.

To swim, it moves backwards through the sand and is propelled by a couple of paddle-like legs, one on each side of the body.

Although no threat to Olympic swimmers, it can disappear very quickly if exposed.

Ant-lion from the Myrmeleontidae family

The adults typically have four lacey wings comprised of interconnecting veins, the arrangement of which are distinctive to various groups and are an important aid to identification. The one below seems to be saying. Look at me! Look at me!

Another method to identify these insects is by their antennae, note with this species how short they are and thickened towards the tip. This places them in the family Myrmeleontidae, the Ant-lion group.

Ant-lion from the Myrmeleontidae family

The adult lacewings with their large eyes, reflect torch light and are therefore very easy to spot at night. So another reason to go spotlighting for invertebrates. You never know what you might find.

With so many Lacewing/Ant-lion species in Australia, I had to include another to illustrate some of the more obvious differences between them. Many will be familiar with the distinctively different green toned lacewings, or the bizarre mantid type with grasping limbs, but have a look at the one below. To an entomologist the differences are crystal-clear, but if you are like me, it takes a little study to see what they are.

Lacewing from the Nymphidae family

Did you spot the differences? For a start the wing reticulation is quite different, but most noticeable are the antennae, these are much longer than the Myrmeleontidae species above, plus they are not thickened at the tips. This places this lacewing into the family Nymphidae. Its larvae is probably one of those non-descript, big jawed insects that wander around on plants looking for small slow moving prey.

Before disturbing dry areas under eves or overhangs, check for inverted cone shaped depressions, as these are the places you will find your ant-lions, which in turn grow into the pretty lacewings. These are good predators by the way, and are helping to keep garden pests under control, so don't forget to leave a little habitat for them.

Esperance Hakeas

2007-07-22T16:01:00.008+08:00

Very hardy with attractive flowers, interesting foliage and sculptured growth habits.

Hakeas are often the neglected genus from the Proteaceae family, yet there are over 150 species and between them, they do everything their closest relative Grevillea does and often more. For a start hakeas are endemic to Australia occurring nowhere else, grevilleas on the other hand are also found in Sulawesi, New Guinea and New Caledonia, although Australia has many more species.

Physically there are a couple of distinct differences between Hakea and Grevillea, most noticeably are the seed capsules, which with Hakea are thick and woody, plus (with most species) do not open to shed their seed until the plant dies or is burnt in a bushfire. Grevilleas on the other hand have much thinner seed capsules, which release their seed annually.

A common misconception is that all hakeas have sharp prickly foliage. This is certainly true with a number of species, but many have flat blunt leaves and even some with needle-like foliage, are quite soft to touch. So there is considerable variation.

Below is probably the best known and widely grown Hakea, ie Hakea laurina or the Pincushion Hakea. This species not only has beautiful and unusual flowers, but flat unarmed foliage that with some forms weeps to the ground. It is quite common around Esperance, from coastal areas to around 100 km inland.

Pincushion Hakea, Hakea laurina

Another difference between hakeas and grevilleas is the foliage. With flat foliage (like a conventional leaf) each side of the Hakea leaf blade looks the same; in other words there is no top or bottom to the leaf. Whereas with grevilleas, the top side is markedly different in appearance to the underneath (bottom) side.

The strongly honey scented Hakea corymbosa or Cauliflower Hakea, so called as the flowers form in tight cream/greenish clusters and it really does look like a cauliflower. It occupies a similar range to the Pincushion Hakea above, but is more common in low lying areas around swamps. It grows as a very compact bush to one and a half metres.

Cauliflower Hakea, Hakea corymbosa

Although not always the case, hakeas tend to grow in areas of periodic flooding or in seepage zones, whereas most grevilleas prefer better drainage. This adaptation to low lying areas does not necessarily mean they are more difficult to grow, as typically these habitats are ephemeral regarding the presence of moisture and often dry out completely during summer, meaning most hakeas are really tough, being able to withstand wet and dry conditions.

Around Esperance the Hakea varia or the Variable-leaved Hakea, is often found growing around freshwater swamps alongside the Cauliflower Hakea above. It too is strongly honey scented and structurally interesting, often growing into unusual sculptured shapes. It is called the Variable-leaved Hakea because the leaves can be smooth edged or highly toothed, with many variations between. The form near me tends to be very spreading and rarely exceeding a metre in height.

A naturally sculptured Hakea varia, around a metre in height x 2 metres diameter.

The same Hakea varia photographed at night.

Variable-leaved Hakea, Hakea varia

I regard myself as being very lucky to have a third Hakea growing with the above Cauliflower and Variable-leaved Hakeas. It too has honey scented flowers and highly variable foliage, however growth wise it is a more normal spreading shrub to around 2 metres in height. Its name is Hakea trifurcate or the Two-leaf Hakea. Note the broad leaves alongside the finely divided ones. These can vary tremendously, with some plants being mainly broad leaved, whilst others all finely divided. There seems to be little reason why this should be so, other than those plants with broad foliage tend to occupy the better watered areas. These hakeas are widespread in the WA Wheatbelt and prefer seepage zones, often around swamps.

Two-leaf Hakea, Hakea trifurcate

As with grevilleas, Hakea flowers vary in composition, forming long or short brushes, plus large and small flower clusters. Hakea flowers also come in a variety of colors, plus some have highly colorful foliage.

Hakea victoria or the Royal Hakea is not an Esperance species, but grows down the road a little in the East & West Mt Barren area, ie on the coast from Ravensthorpe and would probably have the most colourful foliage of any Hakea. It is quite a tall shrub with some growing to over 3 metres. It prefers sandy soils over granite or heavier loams.

Royal Hakea, Hakea victoria

To further emphasise the variability of this genus, some hakeas grow into large dense shrubs or small trees; others are small and spindly, with everything between. Still others grow into living sculptures, providing interest even when not in flower. The foliage (as shown above) is ridiculously variable, but so too are the seed capsules. These can be smaller than your fingernail, or almost as big and round as a cricket ball. Others growing into amusing shapes, like the Frog Hakea.

There is even more to hakeas; birds feed from them, find protection from predators and larger birds, or build their nests within their foliage, particularly if prickly, so these plants occupy a strong ecological niche not only in the bush, but also in your garden.

To end with, I present Hakea clavata or the Coastal Hakea (Not a good common name), which only grows on granite outcrops ranging from the coast to inland mallee regions, where very common. It is a bushy shrub to 2 metres in height and grows in shallow soil over the granite, where its roots will penetrate into any fissure. Due to the hot drying summer conditions it is often the only sizable plant on an outcrop, and does this by producing thick fleshy leaves (almost succulent) to conserve moisture. It has developed another necessary survival mode different to most hakeas whereby it releases its seed annually without the need of bushfire. This is important as most fires cannot traverse the often large open areas of bare rock, making the usual method of seed release (after fire) largely redundant.

Coastal Hakea, Hakea clavata

There is a Hakea for almost every garden situation including the most difficult, so if you ask at your local Garden Centre, you will probably be surprised by the variety of tough and interesting plants available.

Bush Rat, Rattus fuscipes

2007-07-04T16:50:00.002+08:00

A notable little Australian

Rats belong to the Order Rodentia, ie rodents. So what, I hear you say? Well so do around 50% of all mammal species, so these are a highly successful group of animals. Of the twenty odd families in Rodentia, rats and mice belong to the family Muridae, along with voles, muskrats, lemmings, hamsters, etc, and collectively make up 25% of all mammal species. The remaining families contain a very diverse range of animals from beavers to porcupines, squirrels to prairie dogs, etc.

When Australia finally separated from Antarctica around 45 million years ago, the only land mammals were monotremes (echidna and platypus) and marsupials (forerunners of kangaroos, possums, etc). Placenta animals like rats and mice were not part of her compliment. As Australia drifted north, between 10 to 15 million years ago, the first wave of land based placental animals arrived; these were the bats, later followed by the rodents between 5 and 10 million years ago. The bats had flown in, and presumably the rodents drifted in on rafts of vegetation from Indonesia. This first immigration of mice-like rodents are known as the 'old endemics,' and these evolved into our distinctive endemic rodent species, like the water-rat, melomys, rock-rats, hopping mice, etc. The second immigration known as the 'new endemics' arrived around two million years ago and were the first rodents from the genus Rattus.

Bush Rats are nocturnal and secretive and rarely seen day or night, so catching the one below emerging from vegetation was a very lucky coincidence.

Bush Rat, Rattus fuscipes

From a common Rattus ancestor, seven distinct Australian species evolved, of which Rattus fuscipes the Bush Rat is one. Two other Rattus species, R. rattus the Black Rat, and R. norvegicus the Brown Rat, along with Mus musculus, the House Mouse, have arrived within the past few hundred years via either the First Fleet and European settlement in 1788, or by earlier shipwreck. So Rattus fuscipes, the bush rat although a relatively recent addition, is a truly Australian native species and occurs nowhere else.

Unfortunately the bush rat below was killed accidentally when it climbed into the engine compartment of my car, however note the chunky look due to its long soft fur.

There are four subspecies of Bush Rat, but the species as a whole, is geographically distributed from east of the Divide in Queensland, NSW and Victoria, along with some near coastal areas of SA. It is not found in the more arid Nullarbor region, but reoccurs at Esperance, WA, then around coastal areas to a little north of Perth. It also occurs on many offshore islands, but did not gain a footing in Tasmania. Interestingly, the bush rat is not found on the Mornington Peninsula (Victoria) either, despite being common in forests immediately to the north. In this area the Swamp Rat, Rattus lutreolus is common, as is also the case in Tasmania. There is unlikely to be a significant species conflict as the swamp rat is commonly found with the bush rat over most of its east coast range. Although the Bush Rat has a preference for forest areas, whist the Swamp Rat the more open country around swamps and heathland. In WA where the swamp rat does not occur, the bush rat Rattus fuscipes subspecies fuscipes, occupies these swamp and heathland zones and is often called the Western Swamp Rat.

The soft fur and long whiskers of this WA Bush Rat give it a very cute look.

The indigenous Australian rats do not carry infectious diseases as do the introduced species, they keep themselves meticulously clean with regular and thorough grooming, plus do not feed on carrion. I may be a little bias, but they are also much better looking.

To the uninitiated the bush rat can be mistaken for the introduced black rat, however there are several distinct differences. The bush rat has long soft fur and tends to look a little chubby, whilst the black rat's fur is shorter and the animal appears long and sleek. Tail length in relation to head/body length is markedly different, with the bush rat's tail being about the same length, whilst the black rat's tail is unmistakably much longer than its head/body length. Although bush rats can climb simple structures, it is primarily a ground living animal, however the black rat is an excellent climber. So if a rodent is raiding your fruit trees, or living in your roof, it is highly likely to be the introduced black rat.

A gloriously soft tummy.

Bush Rats build an underground tunnel system and can usually be recognised by a mound of excavated soil. Large snakes like the Dugite frequent these areas for rat tucker, plus will seek shelter in the burrows during bushfires or to hibernate through winter. The bush rat is very much a vegetarian, but will also eat fungi and insects, so is a highly adaptable species and capable of surviving changes to its habitat, although it is not successful in urban areas. This need of a bush habitat, is probably because it is a ground living species and its burrow easily located, making it highly susceptible to cat predation.

The teeth are not discolored, but are covered with orange/yellow enamel.

Our indigenous rats and mice are beautiful creatures and should not be confused with the often smelly and destructive introduced rodents. If you have some of our native species living near you, then you are very fortunate and you should ensure they have a chance to prosper by not clearing undergrowth and ensuring cats are excluded from the area.

What is a Lily? A mini botany lesson

2007-06-07T16:42:00.010+08:00

There is much disagreement even amongst botanists, but there are similar characteristics!

Most lilies once to belonged to the family Liliaceae. However more recently, many genera have been placed in other botanical families such as the mat-rushes (genus Lomandra) and grasstrees (genus Xanthorrhoea), now in the families Dasypogonaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae. Nevertheless, they all have some basic features that place those plants into this lily area of classification.

Lilies can be found in most parts of the world with thousands of species and hundreds of genera. So as can be imagined, they come in many guises. In Australia (under the old classification) there were around 60 genera and 300 species, giving us somewhere around 7-8% of the world's lily species.

A typical lily flower, this is the prolific Chamaescilla corymbosa, or Blue Stars. It is a small herb growing from a tuber each winter/spring, and occurring extensively in all southern Australian States.

Blue Stars, Chamaescilla corymbosa

So what is a lily? Firstly they are herbs; i.e. they are not woody with a cambium layer like most shrubs and trees. The leaves are parallel-veined and not interconnected with other veins (reticulated). The flowers have petals and sepals (sepals are the parts that cover the flower in bud), but with lilies, orchids, etc, they are usually petal-like in both color and texture, although they may differ in shape and size.

Blue Stars often carpet the ground where they occur, making a particularly colorful display.

The flowers are made up of three petals and three sepals (although they can appear to be the same (then both known as tepals), however at the flower base, the sepals are the ones on the outside, with the petals on the inner portion next to the (3 or more often 6) stamens. The ovary sits on top of the petals, not below them. So if you have a plant with all these features, then you have a lily or a plant once grouped with them.

A Wurmbea species (collectively known as Early Nancies) that some botanists have now placed in the family Colchicaceae, although some still retain it in Liliaceae. It is slightly smaller than the Blue Stars above, and some species commonly flower with them.

Another Wurmbea species, but is usually only seen around ephemeral swamps following bushfires. Most lilies respond very well to fires, usually producing mass flowering in the following growing season.

Wurmbea species

The pretty Fringe Lily (genus Thysanotus), like the Early Nancies above, have by some botanists been placed in the family Anthericaceae, although some still retain them in Liliaceae. Generally a larger plant than those above, with some creeping/climbing and others with a shrubby appearance. However many are spindly and go unnoticed until they appear in flower, then you cannot miss them.

Fringe Lily, Thysanotus species

A closer photo of another Thysanotus species. It is interesting to note that these flowers close at night or on overcast days, only to reopen during sunnier periods. The fringe first folds into the petals, then the petals fold lengthwise and close together. The narrower sepals then partially cover them. Most lilies have this habit of closing at night, although these fringe lilies would rank amongst the most complex and delicate to do so.

A very common lily particularly around granite outcrops, are the Bulbine Lilies (genus Bulbine). These occur throughout Australia where suitable conditions are found, possibly because the water run-off from the granite provides a prolonged moist habitat for them. These too have been removed from the family Liliaceae by some botanists and placed into the family Asphodelaceae.

Bulbine Lily, Bulbine species

Below is one of the Rush-lilies, or in this case the Autumn Lily (genus Tricoryne), Like some of the fringe lilies, they are almost impossible to find when not in flower, being able to blend perfectly into other vegetation. Note the tufted stamens, an added feature to enhance their interest and beauty. These lilies like the fringe lilies have also been placed by some into the family Anthericaceae

Autumn Lily, Tricoryne species

Next the Grass Lilies from the genus Caesia, now relocated by some botanists from the family Liliaceae to Anthericaceae, along with the fringe and rush lilies. As with the others they are virtually impossible to spot without their flowers, which with most species occur in numbers along the stem.

Below is another grass lily, this time Caesia viscida (named in 1990) a rare and little known species previously only collected from the (near Esperance) Cape Le Grand National Park. I discovered three new colonies after a bushfire next door to me. It forms quite a large tussock of about 50 cm diameter, and the approximately 40 cm long leaves are very viscus, i.e. sticky, and usually have sand grains attached near their base. The flowers are hidden, originating from near ground level and are mostly concealed by the spreading leaves. So it was quite exciting to discover the identity of this plant, after having walked past them several times and assumed (not a good idea with plants) that it was a sedge, currently without flowers.

Grass Lily, Caesia viscida

Once placed in Liliaceae, then into Xanthorrhoeaceae and now by some into Dasypogonaceae, the Mat-rushes from the genus Lomandra. These occur in all Australian States, plus in New Caledonia and New Guinea. This is an interesting conundrum as Western Australia is the only State with most of the other genera from Dasypogonaceae. So it seems doubtful that the other States, let alone countries, are going to readily recognise the latest family change. Such is the confused fate/state of some flora with lily connections.

Below are Grasstrees after fire from the genus Xanthorrhoea and the family Xanthorrhoeaceae, yes the same family the mat-rushes above are/were once placed. These however are retained by most taxonomists in Xanthorrhoeaceae. These large plants some to several metres in height are still technically herbs and not trees at all. The trunks are made from the base of the tough long, but relatively slender leaves (the major part being burnt off during bushfires). These are cemented together by the resin produced by the plant, which becomes liquefied during hot bushfires, the centre of the plant is relatively soft and pithy, but is protected by the 3 cm or so thick, cemented, leaf-base trunk. These grasstrees love fire and few are killed even by the hottest bushfire, many will only flower after they have been burnt, as can be seen by all the developing flowering spikes in the photo.

So why you may ask, does this very un-lily like plant get lumped in with them. As can be seen in the photograph, the structure of the flower is very lily-like, there are three small petals, plus three small (similar looking) sepals, six stamens and a superior ovary. These flower spikes can be several metres in length and contain thousands of tiny cream flowers, they are consequently a great food bonanza when in flower and are a great favorite with honeyeating birds and numerous insects.

Grasstree flower-spike, Xanthorrhoea species

There are of course many other common Australian lily species, but space prohibits their inclusion, the above is just an indication of what makes a lily a lily, combined with a taxonomic riddle that has been around for a very long time and shall probably remain so for some time yet.

Not all, but many of the small ephemeral lilies produce a small tuber. These are quite edible and were commonly eaten by the aborigines, they are tasty being like a small crunchy (less starchy) potato. The aborigines also used the resin from grasstrees as an adhesive to make axes, knifes, spears, etc. The grasstree flower spikes were also used for short hand spears. So lilies are not only pretty, but some have very practical uses too.

Many people go to great lengths to find orchids, but lilies can be just as exciting to hunt down as like orchids, you must be in the right place at the right time to find them. They are I think just as attractive to view and photograph, and with over 300 species within Australia and still probably new ones to discover, they would prove to be a worthy extension of interest, if not a passion in the making.

Prowlers of the night

2007-05-22T12:00:00.004+08:00

They are not great climbers, don't build webs and hunt on the ground at night.

These are the ground dwelling spiders and there are hundreds of species spanning numerous families and dozens of genera. But to those who try to avoid spiders at any cost, or are simply not that interested, they tend to look much the same. Even to those who do take an interest, they are often confused with other spiders or lumped together into a handful of species. Their coloration usually is lack lustre, so few attract much attention. They are not highly venomous so are not sensational, and as they blend into their surroundings and seldom enter houses, are not regarded as pests. However, they are very common and several species would be living in most gardens.

Size-wise they can be very small and easily overlooked, or quite large with a ferocious appearance, but most are not frightening, generally they have long legs with a body size to 2 cm in length.

There are 25 genera in the family Lycosidae, with around 130 Australian species, so just calling them Wolf Spiders is probably the easiest way to go. They are identified from other families by the arrangement of their eyes that are in three rows of 4, 2, 2 with one pair much larger than the others. Some species dig shallow burrows and others climb low foliage, but all are mobile hunters, only using their nest as a daytime retreat.

Wolf Spider Hogna immansueta

These ground spiders should not be confused with the ones that live in silk lined holes (often with a trap door) and jump out to catch passing prey. These are primitive spiders and known as mygalomorphs from the main spider division in the suborder Mygalomorphae, which separates these from the modern spiders Araneomorphae. Some of these spiders are highly venomous and should be treated with the greatest of respect. One of the obvious differences between these two groups are the position of the fangs. The primitive ones have downward pointing fangs and must strike down on their prey. Whereas the modern spider fangs are designed to close on the prey like a pair of pincers, this permits these spiders to be more versatile in the way they hunt, of which running down their prey or lying in ambush are just a couple that ground spiders specialise.

A spider often confused with the Wolf Spider is the Nursery-web Spider from the family Pisauridae. Many have similar coloration to the Wolf Spider, but their eye arrangement is the main feature that separates them. Their eyes are arranged in two rows of 4 with the top row strongly recurved. The size of the eyes are similar, or the top row slightly larger. Another difference (can be seen in the photo below) is the female carries her egg-sac directly beneath her body, whilst the wolf spider trails it behind her.

Spiders or arachnids go back a very long way, possibly to when animals first emerged from the sea over 400 million years ago. The first fossils of the primitive mygaloph spiders date from the pre dinosaur period around 230 million years ago and the first modern araneomorph spider fossils from the Jurassic around 175 million years. The modern spiders with their various physical advantages then evolved into the many (and now more numerous and diverse) species we have today.

Below is another Pisauridae species, this one is commonly found on low-lying clumps of twigs waiting for insects to come within range. This species is much smaller than most wolf spiders, but can move quite quickly to catch its dinner. Like the wolf spider, these nursery-web spiders also reflect a torch light when shone in their eyes. So just scanning around with your torch held just below your eyes, you can pick them out from over 10 metres away, which is an effective method to judge their population size and preferred habitat.

Nursery-web Spider from the family Pisauridae

Modern ground dwelling araneomorph spiders, come from several families. They are hunters, do not construct a web, but some will construct a small daytime or nursery retreat and all protect their eggs in a structure made from silk web material produced from their spinnerets. Because they do not catch their prey in a web, they must restrict themselves to prey they can physically overcome, which generally would be smaller invertebrates, although with some aquatic spiders, vertebrates are also taken.

The same pisaurid species as above, but this one pretending to be an octopus. :)

Yet another Pisauridae species that is still a nursery-web spider, but is more commonly known as a Fishing Spider from the genus Dolomedes and is one of about a dozen species. This one is distinctively colored being dark brown with cream stripes. They move around easily on the surface film of still water, but can dive under to hunt small fish, tadpoles and aquatic insects. They will do the same to avoid predators. Body length is around 2 cm, making them among the largest of this group.

Fishing Spider a Dolomedes species

Although a Fishing Spider, they do not need water to survive. In my area the swamps usually dry completely during summer, it is then this spider may be found further afield. The one below I discovered in my outside bathroom, where she had decided to build her nursery-web on the ground between an old washing machine and a piece of corrugated iron.

Below is part of her nursery-web, here the spiderlings (100 plus) have hatched and after a week had ballooned off on the wind to make a life for themselves. However mum stayed with them until this period.

Below is one of the reasons mum stays with the kids, a Daddy-long-legs (Pholcidae species), is intent on gobbling up a few. This it did for a couple of days until mum noticed it, where upon it ended up a snack for her.

Another ground spider below is from the family Miturgidae and the genus Miturga (my thanks to the WA Museum for identification), it is part of a large group, some Australia wide. They build silken retreats to moult or produce egg-sacs. Some also construct a lose web framework amongst twigs near the ground.

Miturga species

It is interesting to note the legs on most of these ground spiders. They are usually strong and longish and used for running down and holding prey, but their size and arrangement is interesting. With most spiders at least one of more pairs of legs are longer than the others, plus they are usually arranged so some face forward and the others backwards. You can see with these spiders, that when at rest their legs are about the same length and arranged evenly like spokes in a wheel.

The spider below is an Argoctenus species from the family Zoridae (my thanks to the WA Museum for identification) and has just caught a moth. Spiders in this family generally hunt amongst low vegetation or leaf-litter. It is another species that looks like some members of Lycosidae the wolf spiders, except the legs tend to be more slender.

Zoridae species

Yet another ground dwelling spider, but this one very small, the body length would be no more than 5 mm, but it is extremely fast. I have no idea to which this species belongs, but I am not alone here, as there are so many ground dwelling spiders you need an expert to tell the difference between families, let alone between genera and species. So next time you see a similar shaped spider on your veranda, have a closer look. You may not be able to positively identify it, but now you should see there are different species, which make up a part of your fascinating garden eco-system.

Honey Possum, Tarsipes rostratus

2007-04-09T11:03:00.003+08:00

It is cute, but not a possum, nor does it eat honey.

The Honey Possum split from the glider and ringtail possum linage around 2 million years ago where upon it underwent rapid evolutionary change to become the sole member from the Family Tarsipedidae. Honey possums live almost exclusively on a diet of pollen and nectar (not honey, only bees make honey), and hence only survive in regions where nectar producing blossom are available year round. This only occurs in the SW of Western Australia (comprising the region known as the Wheatbelt) extending from Israelite Bay on the south coast, to the Murchison River on the west coast. Due to extensive clearing of vegetation in much of the inland mallee region for wheat production, its stronghold is on the coastal sand belt, much of which remains reasonably intact.

A very thoughtful little honey possum in an Adenanthos cuneatus shrub.

Honey Possum, Tarsipes rostratus

The honey possum is tiny, being smaller than the mouse, Mus musculus and weighing half as much. Their eyes are unusual, inasmuch they do not reflect torch light like true possums, so are very difficult to find amongst the dense foliage of the predominantly Proteaceae plants on which they feed. However partly because of their small size, they hold a couple of world records; apparently the males have the largest mammal testes in relation to their size (around 4.2% of their body weight), but surprisingly they also produce the largest sperm (to 0.36 mm in length). Not to be outdone, the female then produces the smallest young of any mammal, weighing only 0.0005 gm. So a very remarkable little animal and of great interest to the scientific community.

As an indication of size, that Banksia speciosa flower is 150 mm in height

Contemplating its future in a Banksia nutans shrub.

The long slender snout, houses a long slender tongue with a brush-like tip for reaching and lapping up the nectar from the generally long slender tubular Proteaceae flowers. Due to this adaptation it is thought to be an important pollinator of many Banksia and other Proteaceae species. The honey possum has teeth, but they are very specialised, the lower fangs are designed (along with groves in the palate) to scape off the nectar/pollen from the tongue, whilst the other teeth are tiny, peg-like, widely spaced and totally ineffectual for eating solids. However in captivity honey possums are known to eat soft-bodied insect larvae.

Females are about a third larger than males and occupy the dominant position in any relationship. However they generally lead a solitary life, but with overlapping territories, remain quite sociable with others except when the females have young. Their life span is between 1-2 years, but they breed year round providing there is sufficient food. I encountered a mum with two young sitting along side of her, they were only 600 mm away, stationary and in an exposed position ideal for photographing, but they looked so terrified that I returned my camera in its box and left them undisturbed.

Female honey possum about to disappear into an Adenanthos cuneatus shrub.

Honey possums are great climbers, but unlike most other mammals, they do not use their claws, but grasp branches like a monkey with opposable toes. Its genus name of Tarsipes, is derived from the Tarsier (a primitive primate, with a similar foot structure). The honey possum also has a prehensile tail that can support its weight, so is very agile and well adapted to its arboreal home. When caught by torchlight, it usually freezes and remains so unless you come too close, when it can move very quickly. I even had a fleeting glimpse during the day of one (probably disturbed by a bird or reptile) moving over the ground from one bush to another, it was very fast and with a mixture of galloping and leaping, it soon disappeared.

Typical rusty brown stripes and long prehensile tail of the honey possum.

Although this tiny animal is known to climb high into Banksia trees to reach the blossom, I have only seen them within 2 metres of the ground and usually only between a ½ and 1½ metres. Being above this height on the terminal Banksia speciosa flowers, places them in considerable danger of predation from night birds like owls and frogmouths, and when at lower elevations from cats and foxes. I have encountered dead honey possums (and pygmy possums) that had been caught and mauled by cats, and have watched a fox so intent in tracking one down in a clump of low Banksia pulchella, that I almost caught it in my hands.

The reason I suspect the honey possum does not feed from lofty exposed Banksia flowers, is the Tawny Frogmouth, Podargus strigoides, who will happily dine on frogs, reptiles, moths and honey possum.

According to my Jack Russell Terrier (who is under very strict orders not to hunt them), the honey possums do give off an odor, but it is disguised by the odor of the Banksia flowers, and fortunately they take a while to track down, nevertheless the dog is aware if any are around, so presumably cats and foxes would too. I dare say birds and reptiles also take a few, therefore not only are they endangered from predators, but equally so from land clearing and devastating wildfires.

Honey Possum on a Banksia speciosa flower.

Wildfires are caused when the native vegetation is permitted to grow for many years without periodic burn-offs (partly to reduce fuel loads); such fires are highly destructive particularly to the fauna. However if the preferable indigenous mosaic fire management were employed, then it would by its more open flora composition, advantage predators like the cat and fox, by leaving the honey possum more exposed and consequently more easily caught. (see item 14. Fire Management: European versus Indigenous). http://natureitems.blogspot.com/search/label/14.%20%20Fire%20management

From studies conducted in the Fitzgerald River National Park (200-300 km west of Esperance), it was concluded the honey possum did best when fire frequency was at least 20 years apart, in order to permit the floral community, particularly the Banksia species to mature. The situation in the Esperance region I believe is quite different. There are four plant species I have seen the honey possum using and they are also the most dominant in Esperance sandy heath. They comprise the largest local Banksia, B. speciosa that grows to around 6 metres and flowers May to Jan. Banksia nutans to around 1½ metres (flowering Nov to April), and Banksia pulchella usually less than 1 metre and commonly only ½ metre in height (flowering Jan to Oct). The fourth plant and another Proteaceae also very popular with the possum, is Adenanthos cuneatus, which has a very long flowering period, doing so off and on throughout the year. This can grow to 2 metres in height.

With some exceptions, after 20 years, the three Banksia species mentioned would be pretty much at the end of their useful life, with B. pulchella being smothered by larger vegetation, B. speciosa beginning to die off and B. nutans just hanging on. The Adenanthos would be incredibly leggy by this stage (if not smothered) and like the rest, not producing much blossom. However, all of these species would be flowering within three years of a bushfire, and with more blossom than an army of honey possums could consume by 5 years. Most of the largest plants Banksia speciosa and B. nutans would be at their peak (blossom wise within 15 years and beginning to deteriorate thereafter), the others deteriorating within a much shorter period.

Having said the above regarding the Esperance (honey possum) flora situation, I return to the concluding statement of the Fitzgerald River study, where it was found that honey possum numbers were at their highest 20-30 years without a bushfire. This may well be the same for Esperance, but not for the number of nectar producing blossoms available, but from the dense (overgrown) vegetation that is providing protection from cat and fox predators. As a cautionary note, the entire possum population can also be wiped out by a wildfire derived from this overgrown environment with its very high fuel load.

What I believe to be a sensible solution as long as the fox and feral cat populations remain high, is to provide pockets of aged vegetation, alongside areas with a mosaic of different aged flora. However the situation I regret will not improve to where the honey possum is secure in its native environment, unless predator numbers are substantially reduced.

An easily hidden, yet highly vulnerable honey possum.

Icerya purchasi, an Aussie sap-sucker

2007-03-28T10:35:00.003+08:00

Icerya purchasi, the Cottony Cushion Scale prefers Acacias (Wattles).

Scale insects belong to the large and varied order Hemiptera, which include the bugs, such as cicadas, leafhoppers, stink/shield bugs, aquatic bugs, lerps, gall insects, scale, aphids and mealybugs. However Icerya purchasi, the Cottony Cushion Scale (also known as the Australian mealybug and Fluted scale) belong to the family Margarodidae that includes the mealybugs. So what is a scale and what is a mealybug?

Well a mealybug is a scale insect as they all secrete a white waxy layer in which to live, except with mealybugs the adults have a powdery looking exterior and hence the term mealybug. Some mealybugs like the Cottony Cushion Scale also have a cottony appearance.

With the Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya purchasi, the 5-10 mm fluted part at the rear of the insect in not the body, but masses of eggs contained within tubes that have grown from the mealybug's stomach. The actual bug is the smaller oval, colored portion with the legs.

Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya purchasi

During the early stages the young mealybugs move around seeking out suitable places to feed, ants will often carry them to various locations in order to milk them of a sweet fluid that is excreted from fine waxy tubes at their rear. At this stage they are known as crawlers or nymphs and are tiny, initially being around 0.5 mm. Once in a suitable spot, the nymph will extrude a waxy covering (the scale) and begin to feed on the sap of the host plant, which in Australia is usually an Acacia.

As I do not possess a special macro lens, I photographed this juvenile through a microscope.

The much smaller male mealybugs are rare as the female does not need them in order to produce fertile eggs, as she is a hermaphrodite, meaning that he/she/it is both male and female. The males when produced are unlike the females and develop wings in order to find the ladies, but when they emerge from a their small waxy shell they have no mouth parts and exist only to mate. Naturally their adult life span is short, but presumably a happy time.

The adult females after several moults produce their egg-sacs, usually depositing the eggs on the undersides of leaves or along small stems. As each female can produce up to a thousand eggs, this can take quite some time and they are never in a hurry.

These two ladies look like they are making good time, but you could return a day or two later and see little or no movement of either. However they can get a move on when they want to.

The photo below is not a Cushion Scale, but a more conventional scale that is mobile in its waxy (scale) covering. It was most indignant when I plucked its leaf and seemed to be saying. Oi, what do you think you're doing?

The Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya purchasi was the subject of the first successful biological control using an introduced predator. This scale is native to Australia, but has spread to many parts of the globe where it has become a serious pest to many orchard and ornamental plants. In 1868 (after an accidental introduction) it was discovered in California, where it soon infested their citrus trees. It proved to be not only difficult to control but also very expensive and time consuming.

As there were no natural predators of the Cottony Cushion Scale in the USA, the search began in Australia where it was not a serious pest and it was discovered that the Australian Ladybird Rodolia (Novius) cardinalis fed on them. The ladybird was soon introduced to America, Europe and North Africa where the Cushion Scale was proving to be so destructive and the infestations were reduced to manageable proportions.

Elapognathus coronatus, Western Crowned Snake

2007-03-12T18:34:00.002+09:00

A nice looking snake, but difficult to photograph.

The Western Crowned Snakes seldom exceed 50 cm in length, but grow larger on offshore islands. On the mainland they are usually encountered in the morning, sunbaking or crossing sandy tracks. If you see one before you get too close, it will remain still and you can slowly approach to within camera range. However, if you don't see it and walk anywhere near, it will very quickly disappear into the vegetation, where any chance of a close encounter will be lost.

A Western Crowned Snake, caught hunting frogs.

Western Crowned Snake, Elapognathus coronatus

The above hunting photo is one of the more interesting as usually they resemble a slender stick on the track and I have many photos of stiff looking snakes without any interest or character. The one below is typical.

If you are lucky, a more interesting shot can be obtained as it rapidly heads off onto low vegetation, but capturing any detail is another matter, so not very appealing photographically.

I mentioned above that these snakes on offshore islands grow larger, which seems to conflict with the offshore island Tiger Snake, Notechis scutatus (see previous post 05), which are smaller than the mainland ones. So why is this? I suspect there is a critical mass for snakes in these island environments of around a metre. Any larger and they have difficulty finding enough food, but around this size is probably ideal to move around the environment and survive on their diet of skinks. Whilst on the mainland skinks are not so common, plus there is additional competion from larger snakes like the Tiger and Dugite (see previous post 06) who dominate the larger food items, ie larger frogs and small mammals. So the mainland Western Crowned Snake has adapted to prey upon the smaller frogs, with some skinks and possibly a few invertebrates. This niche it shares with the Bardick, Echiopsis curta (see previous post 02) and the Masters Snake, Drysdalia mastersii. The Western Crown Snake (unlike the other two) is endemic to WA and is found around the coast from the Great Australian Bight to a little north of Perth.

The coloration of reptiles can vary considerably and the crown snake is no exception. Typically the top of the head is a blue/grey, and across the back of the neck is a darker band that extends forward and passes through the lower part of the eye, to the snout. Below the eye, the upper lip is prominently white. The eye pupils are also distinctive, being round and circled by a lighter colored ring.

With some crown snakes the top of the head is much darker and similar in color to the dark band, making identification from this feature alone difficult. However they still retain the prominent white upper lip and the eyes remain the same.

Being largely a frog eater, this snake favours wet/dry heath, which is a common habitat in the Esperance region and explains its abundance here. It seeks shelter under logs and rocks, plus in the abandoned nests of stick-nest ants (pictured below), which are also common in the district.

A snake doing what a snake does!

Hello! Hello! What's going on here then?

Animals and plants are interrelated with each other and the environment; they occupy a niche that is governed by other members who collectively make up their eco-system. If you remove a portion, like an animal or plant species, even logs or rocks, this can affect the entire eco-system and destroy the fine balance required to maintain it. So please think carefully before you cause change to natural environments.

Litoria cyclorhyncha, one big happy frog.

2007-03-03T16:48:00.002+09:00

The Spotted-thighed Frog is friendly and always ready for a goodtime.

In an earlier post I featured the Moaning Frog "8. How did the Moaning Frog get its name?

http://natureitems.blogspot.com/2006/11/how-did-moaning-frog-get-its-name.html and illustrated the pitfalls of their stressful life. However with the Spotted-thighed Frog, the situation is fortunately reversed.

This frog is one of the Tree-frogs, but is probably just as active on the ground. There are over sixty Litoria species in Australia, with close to twenty in WA, but most live in the wetter northern regions. Around Esperance we have two, the Slender Tree-frog (from an earlier blog) "7. Do frogs adapt their colouration?"

http://natureitems.blogspot.com/2006/10/do-frogs-adapt-their-colouration.html and this one, the Spotted-thighed Frog.

A relaxed handsome Spotted-thighed Frog.

The only other tree-frog from the genus Litoria in this part of the world, is the closely related Motorbike Frog, Litoria moorei, which is found exclusively to the west of Albany and around the wetter near coastal regions to Kalbarri (500 km north of Perth). They look identical, except the Motorbike Frog does not have the spots on the thighs like the southeastern Spotted-thighed Frog.

When the frog is sitting normally the spots usually cannot be seen, but when swimming they are obvious and contrast brightly against the black inside leg color (another feature of this frog).

The spotted-thighed frog is not only friendly, but also quick to take advantage of anything that can make life more pleasant. I have had up to five frogs soaking up the water as if they were in a sauna.

Naturally intelligent and quick to take advantage of circumstances, they can do very well for themselves.

As the spotted-thighed frog requires open water to lay its eggs, it is generally found close to permanent, or at least seasonally flooded areas. However, it is very hardy and can tolerate prolonged dry periods by remaining hidden and inactive during periods of low humidity (frogs absorb water through their skin).

During the cooler wetter months, these tree-frogs remain active on most nights, with some seeking the limelight by being obnoxiously obvious. Nevertheless, nothing gets in the way of breeding and the following jolly call is common around swamps and waterholes during spring.

http://frogsaustralia.net.au/frogs/calls/qt/litoria_cyclorhyncha.mov
My thanks to the Australian Frog Database

These frogs will eat most invertebrates and the best hunting grounds tend to be closer to the ground, so it is at these lower levels they are more commonly found.

Spotted-thighed Frog, Litoria cyclorhyncha

Nevertheless, when predators like snakes also share these lower elevations, finding a comfy spot on a Banksia speciosa flower high off the ground, is not a bad place to be, providing you keep a lookout for the dreaded Tawny Frogmouth.

It may astonish some people, but frogs can lead interesting and exciting lives, plus adapt surprisingly quickly to take advantage of any introductions to their local environment. Having several frog species means your local environment is varied and in good condition, as habitat diversity will attract numerous insects to eat and provide cool places to hide during the day. So why not brighten your day and make a friendly frog near you happy!

Rhipidura leucophrys and a most desirable residence

2007-02-25T12:28:00.002+09:00

Willie Wagtails are at the top end of the birdie property market.

Have you ever gone past a house and thought, wish I owned that! Well you may not realise it, but the same thing enters the mind of our feathered friends. A pair of Wagtails began to nest under a large (5 metre high) Banksia speciosa (the Showy Banksia), inside it is shady, but quite open except for some well spaced, twisted and spreading leafless branches. They chose a spot on a sturdy horizontal branch more than a metre from the ground, then began work on the nest.

From a distance the wagtail's nest looks like a mudlark's nest, ie a heavy duty swat mug sitting on top of a branch, except instead of being made from mud, is made from entwined grass and lined inside and out, with cobwebs.

Nest under construction. The cobweb lining has yet to be added.

Now at this stage, it began to catch the eye of other local nesting birds, the Yellow-winged Honeyeaters and Little Wattlebirds. They would stop-by during the day to watch the construction technique and admire the final cobweb touches. Often they had to be chased away; such was their curiosity.

Now when mum began her vigil on the nest and laid four eggs, the interest grew stronger, everyone wanted a peep and there would always be a honeyeater just waiting for a quick glimpse at changeover time.

However, when the kids arrived, one wagtail parent was required to be on duty at all times to stop the enraptured onlookers from more detailed inspection.

But then came the day when the kids could fly and the Wagtail family moved away leaving behind an empty, yet still functional nest.

An unoccupied nest of such quality was not left vacant for long, particularly from the yellow-winged honeyeaters, some of whom hopped in and wiggled their chests and bottoms, to shape it to their size. One in particular would make many little adjustments by pulling up an edge and then shimmying around to mould it perfectly to her shape. She was captivated, it was just so cosy and fabulous, she loved the plush cobweb interior and would constantly peer over the edge to the outside, noting the functional design and craftsmanship that had gone into its construction.

Unfortunately a few days later we had several inches of rain, which left the nest in a very bedraggled state. However the honeyeater could still see the potential and continued to visit. She would settle in the cup, get comfortable and then try to pull the edges back into place. She tried for several days, but eventually gave up as it became apparent that it was beyond repair and her dream home was no more.

Mum and Dad Willie Wagtail have not been back to the nest, but the other night one of the now fully grown kids was roosting on the branch within pecking distance, showing even the kids had fond memories of the cosy little home they grew up in.

So next time you see a couple like these, they could be increasing the market value of your property if only for a while, and probably from those with few assets. But hey, there is more to life than money!

Two Conospermum species, plus a botany lesson

2007-02-19T12:27:00.002+09:00

Conospermum or Smokebush belong to the spectacular Proteaceae family.

There are more than sixty smokebush species occurring in most Australian States, but are most numerous and diverse in the SW region of WA (the wheatbelt). Generally they are low to medium sized shrubs, often with striking floral displays that are used in the cut flower industry. There are several species in the Esperance region, but two outshine the others when it comes to display. These are Conospermum distichum and Conospermum teretifolium.

The Conospermum distichum smokebush is a bushy shrub growing to less than a metre and usually (in the Esperance region) occurring in small colonies on deep sandy soil. It mass flowers during spring producing a striking bluish grey (smoky) floral display.

Smokebush, Conospermum distichum

Conospermum teretifolium the Spider Smokebush grows to over a metre, also on deep sandy soils, but as scattered plants or only a few individuals. The flowers form in dense creamy white heads during late spring to early summer.

Spider Smokebush, Conospermum teretifolium

Like most people interested in botany, I have often been caught out on identification. On occasion I have seen (to me) a new species and on keying out the botanical features, it eventually indicates that it belongs to this or that family. But being familiar with some species and genera within that family, I think it can't be as it looks nothing like them. So believing I have made an error, I retrace my steps, only to arrive back again at the highly suspicious family. So reluctantly I investigate, only to find the key was correct and I had encountered yet another variation of the taxonomic features.

These two Conospermum species are also very dissimilar, but now have a look at the flowers, first the C. distichum smokebush. Note the small petals and densely woolly flowers.

Now the Conospermum teretifolium the Spider Smokebush, see how large the flowers are in comparison, with no hairs and the long thin petals.

So how come these completely different plants have been placed in the same genus? The secret is in the structure of the flowers, and this applies not only to these two species, but also to the hundreds of other species in the large Proteaceae family. These Proteaceae plants are found in several countries, although Australia and South Africa have the greatest diversity of species. These include the Australian Banksia, Hakea, Grevillea, Isopogon, Persoonia, Conospermum, etc, also the Protea, Leucospermum, Leucadendron, etc, from South Africa.
The similarity of these plants world wide, is they all have four perianth-segments (4 petal-like structures), with four stamens that are either attached directly to the petal-like structures, or to the perianth (flower) tube itself. There are other features like a superior ovary (where the floral tube runs uninterrupted to below the seed bearing structure, ie the ovary), but basically you have 4 petals + 4 attached stamens.

Now the main differences between the genera relate to the seed and/or, the seed bearing structure, which with Conospermum is a hairy obconical seed/nut. Conospermum in Latin means a cone [shaped] seed.

Therefore both these very different looking plants, have with close examination, 4 petals + 4 attached stamens + obconical seed/nuts!

Why not checkout the above features on the Proteaceae plants in your garden or bush? Then look at the different seeds and seed carrying arrangements. So now you should be able to recognise any Proteaceae plant from anywhere in the world, even if you have never seen them before.

Helea and a Pterohelaeus species from the SE of WA

2007-02-11T16:13:00.002+09:00

Pie-dish Beetles are not only very unusual, but can be steaming hot too!

The genera Helea and Pterohelaeus, or Pie-dish Beetles are endemic to Australia and belong to the family Tenebrionidae. There are over 50 species and although widespread, they tend to favour the drier regions. The Helea species are distinguished from Pterohelaeus by having a wider flange with the top section meeting or overlapping above the head.

A very hairy backed Helea species from the Esperance region of WA.

All Helea and some Pterohelaeus pie-dish beetles are wingless and their elytra (hardened forewings that form the back of the beetle) fused together. As their breathing system is below the elytra, a micro environment is created to retain moisture and enable easier breathing, both an advantage in a dry climate. Anyway, they are nocturnal and ground dwelling, but by day usually rest under leaf-litter, rocks, logs or loose bark. They will often return to the same resting-place each day.

The hardened elytra and flange provide protection from predators, as they can resist penetration from spider fangs or scorpion stingers. They can also use the flange to flatten themselves on the ground to avoid being turned over or attacked from below.

A mating hairy-backed couple not bothered by extended flanges. Note how the flanges overlap above the head.

Pie-dish Beetles, Helea species

Most of the Esperance pie-dish beetle species are between 1.5 - 2 cm in length and are not hairy; in fact some are quite smooth and shiny.

Below is a Pterohelaeus pie-dish beetle having a nibble on a rolled oat, it like others of its species, has a covering of fine sand, possibly caused by a sticky coating to the elytra (some of these are also known as false wireworm beetles because of the shape of their larvae). But take note of the missing flange section above the head, this is the most obvious distinguishing feature between it and the Helea pie-dish beetles.

The single raised portion along the back, is common to these beetles (both genera) and is the fused portion of the elytra, however other species can have additional ribs either side of this.

Pie-dish Beetle, Pterohelaeus species

The oat munching Pterohelaeus Pie-dish Beetle in profile. Note there is very little for any predator to grasp. However all adult pie-dish beetles are very inoffensive, being vegetarian and normally only feeding on dead and decaying plant material.

Note with this mating pair of Helea beetles (flange meeting above the head) the additional ribs and their pronounced raised flange. These flanges are not raised to enable mating but are a feature of this species.

I stopped filming after this shot as I was beginning to suspect that I was becoming involved in a hot pie-dish porno movie.

So next time you spot a pie-dish beetle wondering around at night, check out its features to see how many types you have. You might be surprised!

Hemicloea a likable spider

2007-02-04T15:00:00.005+09:00

Very thin, funny looking and knock-kneed, do you need more?

The Hemicloea belong to the family Gnaphosidae and the subfamily Hemicloeinae, of which there are currently 19 Hemicloea species, spread Australia wide. The two species I have noted around Esperance rarely exceed 2 cm in length (excluding legs) and are usually closer to 1 cm (less than half the size of most Huntsman Spiders), plus being very thin they are not very frightening, even for those with a spider phobia.

The arrangement of their legs is called laterigrade, which means the top of the leg is twisted 90 degrees and faces backwards. This gives the back legs a knock-kneed appearance, as they can touch behind the abdomen. Anyway, this twisted leg arrangement permits the spider to get down really low to squeeze into very small spaces. Not only that, it also allows it to move forwards, backwards and sideways.

A male Hemicloea species, indicated by the large palps near the mouth and next to the front legs.

Normally these spiders live under rocks or loose tree bark, but sometimes they find a tiny crack in the walls of your house and hey presto, when you pick something up, out scuttles this funny looking spider in a complete mess and wondering what to do next.

I leave them alone, as they do no harm, but despite their funny appearance, they catch and eat other spiders, bugs, etc. So great to control any build-up of currently unseen less amusing species.

This is the female (bulkier and also shorter legs) feeding on another spider.

A close-up of the meal.

Below you can see how thin they are! Just a tiny crack is all they need to squeeze into.

Another male finishing off a beetle. Hemicloea species

This fellow has a weird clownish appearance, with the front legs grossly out of proportion to the rest of it.

When I first saw it, I thought it may be one of the many Huntsman Spiders, but when keying it out from observable photographic features, I thought the flat abdomen placed it in the Hemicloeinae subfamily. Now there are two main genera here, the Hemicloea and the Hemicloeina, the latter recently revised. The difference between these groups is the arrangement of the spinnerets, which cannot be seen in these photos. So exactly where it lies I am not sure. If anyone out there can assist, your comments would be welcome.

Update March 2009: An error on my part because it is one of the Huntsman Spiders, but not a common one where I live, as this photo is the only observation I have made of this species. A distinctive feature that separates this spider from the Hemicloea is the long front legs as compared with the rear pair.

This spider also has the slender profile.

This is the only spider I have seen of this species. It is obviously a male, but has lost one of its palps, so probably there are ladies of this species (unknown to me) around too.

All these spiders are wandering hunters so don't build messy webs. Therefore, if you are fortunate to find one in your house, let it put a smile on your face then permit it to go about its business because they are doing you a great service.

Chilopoda are top predators

2007-01-27T17:40:00.002+09:00

In the world of invertebrates, top predators are not only tough, but also well equipped.

Chilopoda is a class of animals commonly called Centipedes. In Australia these are divided into five orders, of which Scolopendramorpha (to be illustrated here) contain the largest species, both in Australia and throughout the world.

The largest centipede Scolopendra gigantca, is from the tropical regions of Central America and can exceed 12 inches, 300 mm in length, whilst our largest species is little more than half that size, but it is still a large invertebrate and a top predator.

Below is an Esperance species from the same family as the largest centipede Scolopendridae, but from the genus Cormocephalus, which is very similar except for the overlapping plate behind the head. The Esperance species is one of seventeen Cormocephalus species, Australia wide.

These larger centipedes are highly solitary and will often cannibalise others during the mating process, which has probably happened in the photo above. They generally prey upon spiders, insects, slugs and worms. The larger ones will also tackle small vertebrates like snakes, lizards, frogs and small rodents. A major part of their weaponry is a pair of legs just below the head; these have evolved to form a large pair of sharp pincers that will grasp an animal and inject paralysing venom from poison glands. The other legs have sharp claws that can also hold the victim (as shown in the above photo). So with 21 pairs of legs, these guys could be described as super huggers, but as far as people are concerned, their bite although painful is not fatal (unless there is an allergic reaction to the venom).

Although centipedes are regarded as ground dwelling animals, they do climb some trees in search of prey like the centipede below, who is checking out a Banksia flower. Note the sharp claw on the ends of the legs. Those two long ones at the rear are used in display with other centipedes or for grasping prey. So as far as weaponry is concerned, these animals are very well equipped.

Although centipedes occur in desert regions, they are more common in warm tropical areas where they obtain their greatest diversity and size. Their breathing system is less efficient in dry conditions and so they mainly hunt at night and rest up during the day in rotting logs, under rocks, in burrows, under leaf-litter or tree bark where more humid conditions exist.

Centipedes have a very long history, having originated in the sea, they are related to lobsters, crabs, shrimps, etc, but they began taking to the land and semi-aquatic environments around 400 million years ago and have prospered ever since. From fossil records, they have been recorded from the coal making Carboniferous period (over 300 million years ago), growing to 1½ metres in length.

Centipede from the genus Cormocephalus

This group of centipedes can live for around 6 years and have developed an unusual nursing habit, whereby they wrap their body around their eggs and later, the defenceless young, where they will remain until their first moult. It is thought that the mother may provide them with their first meal by allowing them to feed from her body. After this period the mother usually dies and the young disperse. The main predation of centipedes is during their first few moults, when they are likely to be taken by spiders and carnivorous insects, but after that stage their main predators are other centipedes.

Despite their fierce reputation, there are always those who cannot resist a photo opportunity with them. Such is the case with this preying mantis.

Now for a little centipede horror story. A number of years ago during winter, I was on a camping trip to Central Australia. Although the days are pleasantly warm, the nights can be bitterly cold, so like most people we built a nice fire to sit around and socialise. Someone had placed a large log on the fire and the lady next to me was relaxing, with her legs resting upon it. All of a sudden clutching her leg, she jumped up screaming and began frantically pulling off her clothing. It turned out that a very big centipede (over 6" in length) had vacated its home in the burning log and took off up her trouser leg.

The sharp claws on its legs had perforated the shin and when she grabbed it from outside her trousers, it had bitten her savagely, injecting much venom. After a few hours she had recovered her composure, plus with some first aid had patched up her wounds, but for the rest of the trip, she never once rested her legs on wood (regardless of size) and always tucked her trouser legs into her socks. So be warned, although the Australian species are not life threatening, it is an experience well worth avoiding.

Despite the horror stories, these animals do not go out of their way to attack people, so if you accidentally come across one, let it go about its business as like all main predators they perform a major function in the ecosystem.

My thanks to the Australian Museum (Sydney) for the identification and sundry information.

White-tailed Spiders, Lampona species.

2007-01-20T16:48:00.003+09:00

A spider with a bad reputation?!

This spider has been accused of biting people and causing flesh-eating ulcers that refuse to heal. However, recent research of 130 bite victims (by two of the most common species from this genus), found no incident of skin damage other than from a painful bite (greater than a bee sting) lasting up to 24 hours. The conclusion given was these spiders are innocent of their reputation.

Nevertheless, something has caused these flesh-eating ulcers, which the people affected claim were from a spider bite. Another possible explanation is the bacteria living around the mouthparts of most spiders, probably as a result of their meals. If this was the cause, it could involve a range of possible spiders as few people have more than an elementary knowledge of spider identification.

Yet another factor, assuming the people were actually bitten by a Lampona species, is there are around 60 recognised species in this genus (occurring Australia wide), but only two of these were tested. Although not all of these spiders have a white spot on their tail, they are however of similar shape and the white dot in most instances is not particularly obvious.

This is one of the White-tailed Spiders. Note the white spot on the tail.

White-tailed Spider a Lampona species

These spiders are wandering night-time hunters that do not build a web, although they sometimes construct a tubular silken retreat, or to lay eggs. Their main diet is other spiders, especially the black house spider, so for those who dislike the look of the house spider and its untidy web, they might prefer the smarter white-tailed spider.

Being hunting spiders their eyesight is good. They have eight eyes (all forward facing) in two rows of four.

During the day, the white-tailed spider rests under bark, logs, rocks or leaf-litter.

This young spider is checking out what the Pie-dish Beetle is eating, but fortunately for the beetle, it is not on the menu.

Most of these spiders are between 1 and 1½ cm in length (excluding legs), but some (like the one below) are closer to 2 cm. I discovered this individual in the open on one of my nightly rambles and like most invertebrates in this situation, they tend to either freeze or move slowly. This one decided to move slowly. It was obviously not happy being caught in the open and initially hugged the ground.

However, it started to become annoyed when I continued to follow it.

In this shot it was very upset and began arching its back, presumably an aggressive posture.

When it reached the weeping foliage of a sedge, it turned and stood on tip-toe like a defensive/aggressive cat, side-on with arched back to make it look more dangerous. It certainly worked on me, as I had no intention of placing a part of my anatomy anywhere near it.

So my advice with spiders, is to treat them all with respect. Don't tease or mess with them because like most wild animals, they will regard you as a threat and are then more likely to bite. If you want to relocate any, simply place a glass over them, then slide a piece of paper or thin board under to trap it. Then release it outside! Alternatively if difficult to reach, a gentle nudge with a broom will usually make the spider crawl aboard so it too can be carried outside, but do it slowly/gently in order not to panic the spider.

Many people are paranoid about spiders, but this is usually due to ignorance and fear. The more you get to know them, the less fearful you become. So get to know your local species and discover how diverse they are in appearance and habit. Most spiders are not aggressive and none are interested in going out of their way to attack you, so inspect them from a respectful distance and learn to appreciate the importance of these creatures in your environment.

Two Esperance Geckos, one agile, one not!

2007-01-13T18:31:00.006+09:00

What is the first thing you notice about a gecko?

For me it was their large unblinking unaggressive eyes, making them very cute looking. There are more than 100 Australian species, but in Esperance only three are recorded and I have never seen one of them. Of the two I do know, one is noticeably common possibly because it will also take up residence in your home, or take advantage of outside lights that attract insects. This human friendly species is the Marbled Gecko, Christinus marmoratus, which has learnt to take advantage of our energy guzzling activities.

However the Marbled Gecko and other species usually live under loose bark or under stones, some even live in spiders burrows. So maybe you can see why our houses look appealing to some.

They dine on a wide range of fare like insects, spiders and scorpions, but they also will partake of fruit, nectar and sap. Some large species will even eat smaller geckos. However, not all geckos have it all their own way. I have found geckos entrapped in the tangled webs of Redback Spiders, which I understand will also eat them.

You can see by the photos below how dexterous the Marbled Gecko is, being able to firmly grasp objects, or stick like glue to smooth vertical surfaces, it will even use its tail for additional traction.

Marbled Gecko, Christinus marmoratus

The Marbled Gecko have an interesting color variation, namely (with some animals) red patches on the tail. However most geckos in my area are without these markings, but it has been noted by Herpetologists that they are particularly common on juveniles. I have seen many juveniles and adults without any noticeable tail markings, so personally I am not convinced that they had them as juveniles or lose them at maturity, but more likely a color variation that for some reason, is only applicable to a minority of animals.

Just because geckos appear cute and cuddly, it does not mean that they cannot get very upset over territory and femme fatale issues with other geckos. Here one had latched onto the neck of the other and like a pit-bull had no intention of letting go.

The other gecko!

The second Esperance species is a very different animal; it is much shyer, prefers not to climb and has brightly speckled eyes, which often betray an inner sense of its own fatality. This is the Soft Spiny-tailed Gecko, Strophurus spinigerus subspecies inornatus.

As you can see, climbing smooth vertical surfaces is not regarded very highly by this species.

Have a look at the speckled eyes and the inner realisation that this might be the last photo it may ever have to endure.

Soft Spiny-tailed Gecko, Strophurus spinigerus subspecies inornatus

But despite the cute face and worried look, when it turns away you can see the remnants of a much bigger and more terrifying ancestor.

So next time you see a cute little gecko with big eyes and a worried expression on its face, remember if you were only a couple of centimetres high, it would probably eat you. However, except for science fiction, this is not likely to happen, instead they will do you the favour by eating all your nasty creepy crawlies.

The amazing camouflage of Crinia georgiana

2006-12-30T13:23:00.002+09:00

Not only can't you find them, but they also call like a duck!

I refer to a small frog called the Quacking Frog or Tschudi's Froglet, Crinia georgiana.

Does it really sound like a duck? Well listen here:

QuickTime: http://frogsaustralia.net.au/frogs/calls/qt/crinia_georgiana.mov
or
Windows Media: http://frogsaustralia.net.au/frogs/display.cfm?frog_id=6

(Recording compliments of Frogs Australia Networks)

The Quacking Frog grows to 4 cm in length (although usually around 3 cm) and is very common in shallow freshwater swamps and rocky outcrops from Esperance (600 km SSE of Perth), to Gingin (around 100 km north of Perth). During their breeding season (winter to early spring), their calls are deafening, but try and find one and you either have to be very good or very lucky.

In this photo there is an adult frog making up most of the frame. Can you see it?

I dare say you could find it well enough after I had told you it was there, but if you were casually looking at the same area, most would not. Not only do the colors blend beautifully into the background, but also the body comprises many bumps, skin folds and wavy lines. This disguises the outline of the frog, providing an almost perfect camouflage.

Take the frog away from its natural environment and it has quite distinctive coloration. The red around the groin is typical to adults of both sexes, plus the golden patch on the upper eyelids (in some areas apparently, the eyelids can be red). These are the most distinctive recognition features.

Quacking Frog, Crinia georgiana

Just look at the bumps on this fellow!

And the skin folds and wavy lines on this one! That golden blotch on its flank can also be white.

This Quacking Frog is not impressed by being picked up, but you can see more clearly the golden patches above the eyes and the very granular belly.

So because frogs can't always be seen, to discover the secrets of your bush, you may have to visit in the evening (during the mating season) and just listen. Often there are so many calls from different species, it can be difficult to identify them all, but this is still the best way to ascertain the number of frog species in your area.

Frogs are not only very cute, but are also an important part of the ecosystem, so look after them by protecting their habitat. However do take the kids and enjoy the educational experience of frogging on a pleasant mild evening, only make sure you leave your discoveries where you find them.

Christmas in the Bush

2006-12-24T10:54:00.005+09:00

What does the WA bush have to offer this festive season?

Firstly, the WA Christmas Tree has the most spectacular flowers of any plant, they being an iridescent orange. It grows to around 6-10 metres and similar in width, with branches spreading outward almost horizontally and except for the tips, are usually bare of any foliage, giving it a clean open structure. Most years, only the larger trees will flower around the Christmas/New Year period, but all flower profusely after a bushfire, when the brilliant orange flowers are contrasted against the blackened trunks.

Nuytsia floribunda the WA Christmas Tree

This Christmas Tree is no ordinary tree. It is a mistletoe! But instead of growing on the branches of host plants, this tree sends out very long roots (to 100 metres), seeking the roots of potential hosts. When it encounters one, it produces a hard white calcium-like ring with a sharp inner edge, once the root is encircled, it cuts into the outer layer to where the sap can be reached and plundered. This feature makes the Christmas Tree very unpopular near fruit orchards, or where small-unprotected plastic water pipes, electric cables or telephone lines have been buried, as these discs will also cut through them, requiring their replacement.

Found in sandy soils from Israelite Bay (200 km east of Esperance) to the Murchison River (500 km north of Perth), it is very common and can even be seen providing shade in grazing paddocks with nothing other than grass and sedges (on which to parasitise). This habitat (devoid of other trees and shrubs) indicates it is not fully parasitic, but can survive for prolonged periods without the need to access the roots of other large plant species.

Its name is Nuytsia floribunda, from the mistletoe family Loranthaceae, but is better known as the WA Christmas Tree. It is named after Pieter Nuijts from the Dutch East India Company, who visited Australia in 1627 in the ship "Gulde Zeepard."

So who else in the bush is enjoying Christmas?

How about all the little animals that believe in the true spirit of Christmas. Santa and the receiving of gifts!

You would think with such a beautiful Christmas Tree, there would be no need for further decoration, but some still try. Here is Froggie the Tree-frog practicing hard to be the tree-fairy.

And Mr T. the Tiger Snake arranging more decorations. At least when he does it, there are fewer arguments.

Shorty the Marauding Katydid a Metaballus sp. is a wildlife 'hippy' who after a session on the grass, wishes everybody love.

As for Santa; Storena the Zodariidae Spider is always a good sport and takes on the role. Mind you she has the advantages of being red and having a big soft tummy, she can also spin the required white wig and beard. Plus nobody has ever fallen off her knee!

Mrs Western Spinebill did her bit, by making a strong toy sack for Santa.

But who is going to pull the sleigh? Fortunately the Crickets bounded in at the last minute. 'Crikey the Cricket' is playing Rudolf the Green-nose Reindeer and is just rearing to go.

However, there are always last minute problems as 'Wicket the Cricket,' stubbornly refused to be called Rudolf the Brown-nose Reindeer.

And what is all this preparation in aid of? The big doe-eyed little ones of course!

So when you go into the bush this Christmas, remember there are lots of little critters that call it home. Therefore be good and watch your step!

Fire Management: European versus Indigenous

2006-12-18T11:53:00.002+09:00

What impact have Europeans had on the Australian environment?

Australia has been settled now for over 200 years, during which time the environment has changed in many ways, particularly its flora and fauna. There are of course many reasons for this, but a major one, and one rarely mentioned, is fire management, or at least indigenous fire management.

Most people think a fire is a fire is a fire, full stop, but this is not the case, as I hope to illustrate. Europeans use fire very differently from Indigenous People, their entire attitude toward it is different. In fact, as different as their cultures.

Europeans are sedentary farmers, they use fire to clear land and reduce the danger of being burnt out. Native vegetation to most farmers (even today) is a damn nuisance, something you have to clear before you can sow a crop or graze livestock and so make an income.

Now compare the above with the Australian Aborigine; they were nomadic and hunter-gatherers. Some people say they burnt the land to open it up and to provide green pick for kangaroos and other game. However, this is a very simplistic European view! Where there was a need to burn (not everywhere in Australia was traditionally burnt), aborigines were 'looking after country.' They knew that without a periodic burn, their country would die and so would they!

Aborigines were the original ecologists; they understood the value of various flora and fauna and the interdependency of one upon another. They understood that many plant species need a fire to clear the larger dominant vegetation and permit smaller plants and the animals that existed upon them to have their day. By contrast, today with little to no burning, many of these small species are becoming extremely rare and their pollinators gradually going extinct.

In my surveys, I have encountered plant species presumed extinct (not seen for over 50 years), occurring in their millions a season after a bushfire has passed through. The landscape had been transformed once the dominating larger species had been temporarily removed (they regenerate from rootstock and/or seed, but this takes a few years before they can again dominate the environment) and replaced by a completely new suite of plants

This enrichment of the environment provided the aborigines with a more diverse range of food in both flora and fauna, plus it encouraged the growth of medicinal and narcotic plants. It also provided improved habitat for kangaroos and opened up the country for them, but these were only part of the equation, not all by a very long way. It was as I have said, 'looking after country.'

So straight away it can be seen there is a very different attitude towards native species. For one a damn nuisance and the other their livelihood and prosperity.

Different types of Fire Management

European

Both these photos were of an uncontrolled bushfire in an area that had not been burnt for over 30 years. Fuel loads were excessively high and the flames fanned by strong winds.

Europeans even today, want the bush to do its own thing with minimum input from them. So what is common practice regarding fire management, the answer; nothing! You just leave it be, with the result the smaller species are replaced by the larger, which in turn mature and gradually die. There is very little new growth and what there is, is usually rank and worthless for wildlife. The vigour and vitality of larger plant species is reduced to the tips of branches, providing sustenance for only a few birds and insects. The diversity is consequently greatly reduced of both flora and fauna and this remnant of native vegetation is now only good for providing a hiding place for a few hardy species.

So you now have a largely unproductive area, where fuel loads are excessively high and just waiting for a spark. Whether that spark comes from lightning, campfire or a controlled burn, the outcome is usually the same. Total burnout! Excessive fuel loads mean the fire will be large and hot, this will often kill any large trees within the fire zone. It also means the regrowth is mostly the same age, but thanks to the seedbank contained in the soil, it will initially produce most of the vegetation indigenous to that area, however because of the time lapse between flowerings, the insects, mammals and other animals necessary for pollination and reproduction are often no longer there.

The animals that do survive the intense heat of these fires, are then faced by the lack of food in the aftermath, therefore the most likely survivors are those that could out-fly the flames, out-run the flames, or find a deep hole in which to crawl and hope the fire did not draw out all the oxygen. Consequently, these intense fires are devastating for the wildlife, with few survivors.

The aftermath of the fire, not a green leaf remained and even the sandy soil baked hard.

The fire that burnt these Grasstrees was so hot and prolonged, that the resin which binds the trunk together melted and flowed freely.

So with European Fire Management, there is a gradual downward spiral of biodiversity, first the fauna from lack of access to the vegetation they need, and secondly, diminishing flora, as species are no longer pollinated and consequently produce little or no seed and perish after gradually exhausting the soil seedbank.

Aboriginal Fire Management

Most aboriginal clans set aside a period each year for the purpose of 'looking after country.' These periods (around 4-6 weeks) are named and as such mean more to the people than something they ought to do. But something they must do! It was part of their spiritual and cultural lives. This fire season period differed between peoples and was dependent on factors such as vegetation type and naturally occurring climatic conditions that would aid fire control and/or successful regeneration. In central Australia (Spinifex country), burning was a more casual affair and would take place throughout the year and often used to signal other groups. However most burning off was done in anticipation of rain.

In rainforest areas there was no organised burning activity, for a start there was little need because dead vegetation would soon be recycled by micro-organisms in the damp humid environment, therefore there was less of a problem from high combustible fuel loads. These naturally damp conditions and the less combustible plants in rainforests would also reduce and extinguish fire. However, neighbouring areas of savanna, dry woodland and heath would have been burnt by indigenous people and in the prescribed manner.

So what is different? Simply everything! Let us take an area of fire prone bushland. The European would burn it all in one go, leaving it to revegetate as a largely single aged ecosystem. Then after say 20 or so years, the local fire brigade (may) burn it again, creating yet another single aged flora cover.

The aborigine faced with the same bushland in the same condition would through necessity also burn it and due to high fuel loads, it too would burn completely. But methods change from there on. The following year they would return to burn more of it, but unless there was dry annual grass, nothing would! But in the second year after the fire, patches would burn, these would mainly be short-lived plant species that have died, dried out and become easily combustible, however their fires would be small and not travel far. Bear in mind the aborigine used fire sticks to light their fires, not the European mixture of Kerosene and Methylated Spirits that literally drip fire. So their method in comparison was less efficient and getting plants to ignite and to stay alight would have been more difficult and consequently this too would aid the gradual development of burnt and unburnt vegetation.

In the third year there would much more vegetation that would ignite and the flames would slowly run. These fires travel slowly on a light breeze, but seldom spread sideways unless a pocket of more inflammable material is encountered, so the area of bushland begins to be broken up into interconnecting strips of burnt vegetation and many islands of unburnt vegetation.

The fourth year the vegetation will burn even more strongly, but it is stopped by the interconnecting strips of vegetation that was burnt in the previous two years. At this stage, the areas of burnt, partially burnt and regenerating vegetation is becoming quite complex and unless the aborigines went to a great deal of trouble and visited every unburnt island, the larger area would now not burn. So in the fifth year some pockets of 5 year old vegetation, plus bits of other neighbouring aged will also be burnt, but still many islands, both large and small remain where slower growing plant species can grow to maturity, flower, seed and reproduce.

So a highly complex web of different aged vegetation begins working together, not only to protect themselves against bushfire, but also permitting all plant species to exploit their different requirement. This in turn will attract a greater diversity of animals, who can also seek protection from predators in the denser unburnt sections, plus have a good chance of escaping any fires.

The big difference is not in High-Tech equipment, nor in the planning, but it is in the dedication of a regular fire management practice, plus an interest in the long-term health of the ecosystem. The thing I think is of greatest interest, is with this simple annual fire-stick practice, the system becomes increasingly easier to control and manage. The danger of wildfire is greatly reduced, but biodiversity is greatly increased. If we are inclined, we can still learn from the aborigine of how to manage this land, because they did have a win, win situation when looking after country!

These orchids are examples of small plants that are advantaged by Aboriginal Fire Management.

I have through necessity had to simplify this post, with the consequence that many factors have been omitted. So if anyone has questions, please ask in the comments section below and I shall try to answer them.

Four Esperance Lechenaultia (fan-flower) species

2006-12-09T17:31:00.007+09:00

The genus Lechenaultia is named after a French botanist who accompanied the Baudin expedition to Australia 1800-1804.

Lechenaultia is part of the large flora family of Goodeniaceae. Other better known genera include, Goodenia, Scaevola, Dampiera, etc. As a family of fan-flowers there are hundreds of species occurring throughout Australia, their flowers come in all colors and the plants are usually very common after fire or when there has been soil disturbance. Most are small shrubs, although there are also many non-woody species (herbs); the Esperance region species grow in a variety of habitats, from coastal dunes, to sandy heath and dry mallee.

Most Goodeniaceae species have a distinctively fan shaped flower, although some need close examination to appreciate this feature, the foliage varies greatly from tiny leaves to large fleshy ones, some armed with sharp spines, but normally it is the shape of the flowers and their bright colors that draw the attention.

The four Lechenaultia species from around Esperance come in many colors.

Lechenaultia formosa the so called Red Lechenaultia

Lechenaultia formosa grows in a sandy soil around seasonally wet depressions and flowers best when the soil is moist.

The flowers come in an amazing array of colors. These illustrated are only a few examples.

The "Heath Lechenaultia," Lechenaultia tubiflora does not initially look like a fan-flower, but has all the necessary features to place it well and truly within the genus. This species likes the deep sandy soils, obviously preferring better drained sites, but like Lechenaultia formosa above, has an interesting although less varied range of color variations. Commonly the flowers are either red or a cream/green color as shown below.

But not satisfied with these colors, it produces bicolor ones that combine the two. Either the red or the cream can be at the top, with the other color making up the remainder of the flower. These color forms are at a guesstimate, a third fully red, a third fully Cream/green and the remaining third a bicolor between the two.

Lechenaultia brevifolia does not occur in the Esperance coastal region, but can be found further inland, usually in a sandy soil over a heavier clay base. Here the temperature is warmer than in coastal regions and surface rainfall drying quickly, but the heavier soil under the sand would probably retain moisture for some time. It is usually a very open small shrub, with the flowers resembling Lechenaultia biloba. It was described in 1987, so only a recently recognised species.

This last Lechenaultia also only occurs inland, and usually after fire where it might persist for a few seasons. It is a low shrub and a prolific flowerer, favouring a sandy/clay soil in seasonally (winter) damp depressions, or seepage zones. Its name is Lechenaultia papillata and like the blue flowering species above was first described in 1987.

These plants are often considered difficult to grow in the garden, but given similar conditions to where they normally occur, they are quite hardy. However soil type and moisture availability are critical requirements.

The Crane Fly from the subfamily Tipulinae

2006-12-03T13:21:00.002+09:00

Crane Flies are flies, not big mosquitoes or daddy-long-leg spiders

They belong to the family Tipulidae, which interestingly has more species than any other fly family in Australia. This family belongs to the suborder Nematocera, which does include Mosquitoes, Midges and Sand Flies. However the Crane Fly is quite harmless, it neither bites, stings or sucks blood, in fact many do not eat at all, being only able to drink, consequently they are very short lived and mainly exist to establish the next generation.

With legs like these, they can't even run fast, particularly when some are easily mislaid.

Crane Fly from the family Tipulidae

Most Crane Flies have an aquatic larval stage and generally prefer moist shady environments, so they are far more common in the near east coastal areas from Tasmania to north Queensland. However we do have over thirty WA species from several genera, whereas in the east they have many times that number. Besides those that prefer aquatic environment, there are also some that breed in moist soils, compost and rotting vegetation. These larvae of these will feed on the decomposing vegetation and/or small invertebrates.

With such long legs, some positions are out of the question.

Unless you look closely, you would think that this fly has a large head and a long proboscis, but on closer inspection it is the thorax that is large and the proboscis looking part, the real head. Examination of the antennae, this species has unbranched tips, which taxonomically places it in the subfamily Tipulinae. Unfortunately I cannot id it to genus let alone species level, as these details are only published in specialist journals that I do not have access.

Some flies do have nasty irritating habits and spread disease, but Crane Flies are one of the good guys.

Australian Cockroaches can be strikingly colourful and highly sociable

2006-11-26T13:34:00.003+08:00

Several southern WA Cockroach species, from the families Blattidae and Blaberidae

Australian indigenous cockroaches seldom enter houses, this is unlike the introduced varieties that fly/crawl into your home to become irritating and persistent pests. So now please consider our native species, because they can be very beautiful and highly social animals, mainly living on leaf detritus, rotting wood, flowers and nectar. Many do not have wings, so seldom move far from their preferred habitat and usually live under leaf litter, in burrows, in/under rotting logs and under the bark of trees. Most are nocturnal, but some can be found during the day on various vegetation types.

Have a look at this one; it would have to be amongst the most colourful of any insect. Its name is Polyzosteria mitchelli, but is generally known (along with many other species) as a Bush Cockroach from the family Blattidae. It grows to around 5 cm in length.

Bush Cockroach, Polyzosteria mitchelli

It came.

It saw.

Then left (don't you just love those blue socks).

This one is carrying a hard egg case, called an ootheca, which can contain between 12 to 40 eggs (depending on species). The ootheca is slowly extruded by the female and eggs neatly placed within, it will eventually be deposited in a safe place for the young to develop (which with most cockroaches) will be left to fend for themselves.

Not all species of the Blattidae family are highly colored; one common Platyzosteria species is totally black. This one is also carrying an ootheca.

This Platyzosteria species is seldom more than 3 cm in length and can be found at night, quite high in trees where it seeks out flowers on which it feeds. It is also found on the ground and probably is a common prey species for mammals, frogs, reptiles, arachnids and night birds. In defence, many species including this one, will raise up their rear and release a foul smelling concoction to deter any predator with a sensitive nose.

Being completely black, it can play the part of Darth Vader very convincingly.

A Cockroaches life however is not all fun and games, as they have parasites that can be fatal, one of these is the Gordian worm belonging to phylum, Nematomorpha. The adult worms intend leaving their host near water so they can breed and provide habitat for their aquatic young. However, as can be seen with this one, the host is not always cooperative and the worm also dies. (My thanks to the Australian Museum for this information)

This next species (also from the family Blattidae) can easily be confused with the black variety above (similar looking cockroach species can only be distinguished by their genitalia). However, this species was reasonable distinctive, being a dark bronze in colour, slightly smaller, with shorter leg spines and a pale horseshoe shaped area along the upper shield edge.

This pair are intent on making a large ootheca full of viable eggs. Note the small one (probably the male) compared to the much larger female. Dimorphism and other differences are not unusual with cockroaches and some males and females have in the past been described as different species.

This lady having made her ootheca, is looking for a good spot to place it. Note how fat these animals are, quite unlike the introduced cockroaches, which tend to be flat with both sexes winged.

Yet another cockroach from the Blattidae (this family by the way, is the largest of the five Australian cockroach families, having as many species as the other four families put together). This one is a Drymaplaneta species, or a Bark Cockroach and has a prominent creamy/white horseshoe marking on the shield.

Although having no wings, it is a very good climber (here on glass).

This is a juvenile Blattodea species typically feeding from a Banksia speciosa flower.

Now for a different family! It includes the largest (to 7 cm) and most bulky cockroach in the world and lives here in north Queensland, it is a member of the Blaberidae family. However, this Esperance WA species is much smaller, being less than half that size, but it has the characteristic broad, bulky shape and short legs. These are social animals and raise their young in underground chambers, or under leaf litter, in rotten logs, or dead Grasstrees (Xanthorrhoea sp.) and because of their shape, are commonly known as Trilobite Roaches. The males of these Calolampra species are usually winged, yet they all live together in communities with the females and the young, apparently communicating with each other by scent.

This group with the large, more heavily armoured outer shield, which combined with shorter legs (ideal for digging) are a much slower moving cockroach than most people are familiar with. They probably move around less too, so are not commonly seen unless you happen to be near their nest.

And who could resist this shy modest Trilobite Roach?

So remember, all roaches, ain't just roaches, particularly when they're native roaches.

The highly successful Stumpy-tail Lizard, Tiliqua rugosa

2006-11-18T19:14:00.003+08:00

Also known as the Shingleback, Bobtail, Sleepy Lizard, Pinecone Lizard and the Boggi.

They occur in the drier regions of five States and do remarkably well in built-up areas, living under houses, in pipes, under vegetation, rocks or logs. They are omnivores and happily eat snails, slugs and caterpillars, they also consume a large selection (more than most reptiles) of vegetation, flowers and fruits. Although you might not want a Stumpy-tail in your strawberry patch, they are otherwise excellent for keeping many plant-eating pests under control.

These lizards are a dentist's delight. If you say open wide, the head almost separates in two, showing strong muscles and a broad fleshy purple/blue tongue. The males although slightly smaller than the females (can grow to over 40 cm in length) have the larger head and during the breeding season can be very aggressive to other males.

These lizards are usually solitary, but do not avoid others and often meet up during the year. However, they sort themselves into couples at the approach of the mating season (September to November). Initially they just go about together, but closer to the time of mating, the male follows the female around for a couple of weeks and lookout any unattached male in their vicinity, as they are chased off very smartly, however other roving couples are not met with the same aggression. This may be because they only have one partner per season, although the same pair may get together for several years. One couple has been recorded in a ten year relationship, the longest known for any reptile. From two to six young are born live, five months after mating and are independent from birth, although strangely, close family members can apparently recognise each other even after long separation.

Stumpy-tailed Lizards can live without water for extended periods, but appreciate a drink when available.

Despite their large size and somewhat clumsy appearance, they can be a very attractive lizard, with large soft eyes that can wink at you with their moveable lower eye-lid.

They are often found within low flowering plants, no doubt sampling the produce.

Predation from native species are largely restricted to juvenile animals and tend to be from birds like kookaburras, birds of prey and large snakes. However most are preyed upon, or simply killed by cats, foxes and dogs, plus a heavy toll is taken on the roads as they slowly cross or sun-bake.

From the perspective of the lizard's prey, at this level they can look like a very big snake.

And from the prey's last look.

Stumpy-tail Lizard, Tiliqua rugosa

Two Scorpion Species

2006-11-11T18:12:00.004+08:00

I have noted two very different scorpions in the Esperance region, one small and the other quite large. They are nocturnal feeders and the best time to see them is in the warmer weather, particularly after rain. However, scorpions are able to live for long periods (to 12 months) without food or water, so they can be very secretive and to see them wandering around is not an overly common event.

Scorpions have between six and twelve eyes, but these are very small and not very effective, however they have parts that are highly sensitive to movement and ground vibrations. With these they can detect mates and prey, the latter (depending on the size of the scorpion) can include beetles, spiders, other scorpions, centipedes, reptiles, frogs and small mammals. They are preyed upon by nocturnal birds, mammals, reptiles, centipedes and other scorpions, so life can also be hazardous.

This scorpion is at the smaller end as far as Australian scorpions are concerned, these are usually around 3 cm in length and very slender.

Marbled Scorpion, Lychas marmoreus

This speckled species is a Marbled Scorpion or Lychas marmoreus, but according to the WA Museum it belongs to a group of animals that are currently being revised and will be placed in a new genus.

Note how flat this scorpion is, permitting it to live under leaf litter, rocks and logs.

Although a small scorpion, its sting can be more painful than other larger Australian species. However these and all Australian scorpions are not dangerous to people, unlike some deadly African and American species.

These Marbled Scorpions are amongst the most mobile and common of the Australian species and do on occasion enter houses, but are more often found under items lying around the garden.

The larger species (to around 10 cm in length) are very chunky and heavily armoured, however its sting is likened only to that of a bee, so visually it is far more ferocious than it actually is.

These scorpions are called Sand Scorpions (Urodacus species, currently under revision) because they build deep spiralling burrows in sandy soils. They normally don't move far from their entrance, whilst lying in wait to ambush passing prey.

Sand Scorpion, Urodacus species

The large claws are used to grasp the prey whilst bringing the stinger down to dispatch it. After a while the injected digestive juices turn the inner contents of the dead animal turn to a soup, which is then consumed up by the scorpion. There is very little wastage with this process and few meals a year are required.

Note the stinger and how it points outwards to make striking more efficient and probably more powerful by being able to thrust with its weight, rather than a weaker downward stabbing motion. This downward stabbing motion (of the fangs) is used by the burrowing mygalomorph spiders, but with their anatomy they can get more power/weight using this attack mode.

Scorpions can take up to six years to reach sexual maturity and may even live for 25 years or more. So if you have any, you have plenty of time to get to know them.

How did the Moaning Frog get its name?

2006-11-05T12:16:00.002+08:00

How did the Moaning Frog, Heleioporus eyrei, get its name?

For a start it has a very mournful call (hear it on this QuickTime link

http://frogsaustralia.net.au/frogs/calls/qt/heleioporus_eyrei.mov

from the Australian Frog Database), but is this the only reason?

I don't think so!

The Moaning Frog is very common along the southern and lower western coastal areas of Western Australia. It breeds in burrows each autumn that are located in shallow, usually seasonal, freshwater depressions, from which the male calls. From there they (including the young frogs) spread out into the neighbouring country where they daily burrow into the usually sandy soils to rest during the day and emerge at night to feed.

They are a chunky (over 60 mm in length), ground dwelling frog with large eyes and a larger tummy, both of which in my opinion aid in its cute but mournful appearance.

This is a typical Moaning Frog, look into its eye and tell me if it is not worrying whether it has left something on the stove!

This mournful expression starts very young.
This one (fresh out of the burrow) seems to be wondering if tonight will be its last.

And as for steps....... as far as this kid is concerned, it's the end of the world.

This one would have to be thinking "I'm doomed!"

Even in adult life, the depressed state of mind remains.

Some might say the Moaning Frog has a lot to contend with.

However, others learn to overcome their negative thoughts to become froggy tough-guys.

Moaning Frog, Heleioporus eyrei

Do frogs adapt their colouration?

2006-10-28T16:55:00.003+08:00

Do frogs adapt their colouration to suit their habitat, or are there micro-evolutionary processes at work?

Some frog species are notorious for their colour variability, which often create identification problems. One such frog is the Slender Tree Frog, Litoria adelaidensis, which lives near freshwater in the SW and southern coastal region of Western Australia. It grows to around 45 mm in length, however most are usually smaller, particularly males.

Below is a typical Slender Tree Frog, note the slender body with a tapering head. Also the pronounced dark stripe, extending through the eye to the lower flanks, as these are the more obvious features for quick identification.

The extent of green markings along the sides is extremely variable, as are the browns along the back.

Slender Tree Frog, Litoria adelaidensis

This other Slender Tree Frog has no green makings.

Less often seen is the bright red/orange on the backs of the thighs.

And even less seen, is the underside of these frogs, showing the large disks, the unwebbed fingers, but strongly webbed toes.

Now check out the frog colors as they relate to habitat.

See how the bright green patches and dark colouration blend into this tree/shrub habitat.

Also how the all brown marking of this frog match the tree, in this case the Flat Top Yate, Eucalyptus occidentalis that is common in ephemeral swampy areas.

Note the green reed-like colouration running the length of the frog with no markings along the back. This frog was very common with other similarly marked individuals on the Jointed Twig Rush, Baumea articulata, whose presence denotes areas of prolonged near surface freshwater.

This frog is the greenest tree frog I have ever seen, it was living amongst low green sedges on the outer edge of an ephemeral swamp.

In the Esperance area, the above four very different colouration types would certainly assist the frogs survival within their preferred habitat. So is it something the frogs can influence, or is it a mini habitat variation, where variants are more easily spotted and eliminated by predators, thereby promoting compatible color forms within their micro-habitats?

Mouse hunter extraordinaire

2006-10-21T11:59:00.002+08:00

Mouse hunter extraordinaire, the Dugite, Pseudonaja affinis

The lightning fast Dugite of the southern parts of Western Australia really love rodents, although other small mammals and reptiles are not overlooked. The scent of the introduced House Mouse, Mus musculus will have the small to medium sized snakes going to great lengths to doggedly track them down and will even enter through your front door if any mice have taken refuge inside. The larger snakes (to 2 metres below) will seek out the bigger native Bush Rats, Rattus fuscipes. So why this interest in rodents? Maybe their shape has something to do with it!

Young snakes (to 11/2 metres) are long and slender and ideally suited to fitting into a mouse burrow, whereas the larger snakes thicken and will not fit, but do so comfortably down a Bush Rats burrow. The Dugites above and below are large snakes of around 2 metres in length. Both of these lived for a period of time down Bush Rat burrows, where they probably hibernated through winter.

As an example of their interest in rodents, I always have an Elliott trap set to catch any passing mouse in order to stop them breeding up in and around my home. Well I had caught a mouse in the trap the night before, which I had disposed of and then reset. About lunchtime I noticed it had been set off again and assumed I had caught another. So picking it up to see the captive, I discovered the trap was very heavy, much heavier than even a Bush Rat, so I very gingerly peered inside where my gaze was meet by a beady eyed Dugite's. It turned out to be a little over 4 foot in length, but was not really aggressive and was happy to head off into the bush.

Dugite Snake, Pseudonaja affinis

The Dugite belongs to the genus Pseudonaja, the Brown Snakes, which generally have a bad reputation for being very aggressive. However, I have never found the Dugite to be so, from my experience they just go about their business with great determination and will completely ignore you. If confronted they will seek the fastest mode of escape, preferring to flee rather than fight. This I should add only applies to the younger snakes, once they mature, they should be treated with the greatest respect as all large adult snakes are very sure of themselves (being a top predator) and do not submit readily, but will still get out of your way if given the opportunity.

The length of these snakes varies and like the Tiger Snake, are usually smaller on offshore islands, where two subspecies are recognised. Coloration also varies from dark colored ones to the brown ones near me that usually are heavily flecked with darker scales and some (as with the top photo), with a dark brown head.

I have noticed with the Dugites and Tiger Snakes that they occupy a territory and if you are part of it, will return periodically. If there is nothing for them to eat, they will move on, but if not they will stay until they have caught it, or it does a runner. These snakes have good memories and certainly recognise permanent residents and I believe go out of their way not to interfere with you. Even if you come across them suddenly there is no attempt to strike, but only to get out of your way. I like snakes, they are very accommodating!

The highly variable Tiger Snake

2006-10-14T11:59:00.006+08:00

The highly variable Tiger Snake, Notechis scutatus.

This is a common snake occurring across southern Australia including Tasmania and neighboring islands. Some herpetologists consider this snake to be two species with several subspecies, whilst others regard it as a single highly variable species. The snake from Western Australia is generally known as Notechis scutatus subspecies occidentalis.

It is usually a highly colorful snake reaching a maximum length of around 1.4 metres, which places it size-wise, between the Tasmanian subspecies of up to 2 metres and some SA island populations of less than 1 metre. Coloration within these populations also varies considerably, with some being completely unbanded (often regarded as a characteristic of this snake).

This variation in size can in large degree be related to the available food source, with Tasmania having a large selection of mammals and mutton birds from which to choose, whereas on the SA islands there is little other than skinks on which to prey. However, some characteristics are common to all like the flattening of the neck, which strongly signifies 'don't mess with me!'

Tiger Snake, Notechis scutatus

The WA Tiger Snake will climb trees, particularly the 6-10 metre Coastal Paperbark, Melaleuca cuticularis, which has a thick paper-bark covering of the sloping branches and trunks, permitting the snake to gain leverage. These trees also provide excellent habitat for birds to nest and it is their chicks the snakes seek. I discovered from the racket being made by a myriad of small, very concerned birds, a Tiger Snake about to take some recently hatched honeyeater chicks that were a couple of metres off the ground. The snake being disturbed by me dropped to the ground and made off. When I looked into the nest there were three chicks totally fazed with glazed eyes and apparently in a trance from the Tiger Snake's mesmerising look. Thinking they would probably recover I left them, but returned a couple of hours later, only to find an empty nest. The snake had returned and taken the lot!

The Black Wishbone Spider

2006-10-08T11:02:00.003+08:00

Aname species a Black Wishbone Spider, also known as the False Funnel-web

These spiders belong to the suborder Mygalomorphae, which are medium to large primitive spiders, with downward pointing fangs requiring them to strike down on their prey. The female of the Black Wishbone Spider is quite large and to some can look very frightening, but fortunately she seldom leaves her burrow unless attacked by predators like scorpions and centipedes.

Aname species - Black Wishbone Spider

Her body length can exceed 3 cm and if disturbed is usually very aggressive.

They build a near vertical tunnel lined with silk, sometimes branched into a wishbone shape, but do not construct a trap door, leaving the entrance to the burrow open from which they spring upon any passing prey. Should you want a heart stopping experience, just pretend you are an insect outside their burrow and see how fast they can appear. The burrow entrance however, is often blocked during the hot summer months, probably to conserve moisture.

Below she is carrying/bulldozing sand from her burrow.

The site of recently excavated sand with the burrow entrance.

The male of this species whilst looking for the ladies, can be found wandering around at night, particularly after rain in spring and autumn. Being smaller, he needs to protect himself from being regarded as prey from the much larger and heavier female, this he does by restraining her with strong spurs on the front legs that can be seen in the photo below.

The male although smaller in body size, have very large fangs and should not be messed with. Although the venom from this species is not as toxic to humans (no known fatalities) as the Sydney Funnel-web, they can still inflict a very deep and painful bite.

A very colourful spider

2006-10-02T10:31:00.002+08:00

Mr and Mrs Storena.

Mr Storena is a very attractive and unusual spider, being around 20 mm in length (Cephalothorax/Abdomen) with a pair of long arm-like palpal organs in front.

And who could resist the happy face of Mrs Storena (below) with her eight eyes arranged 2,4,2.

I found her wandering across my driveway at 11 am on a bright sunny morning. Obviously, her bright red/orange colors serve well to deter any potential predators. She was a little longer than Mr Storena and much stouter, which gave her a much larger appearance.

There are a number of species from this genus within Australia, but this one probably is either Storena formosa or S. fungina. Their family is Zodariidae, who as a group usually live under leaf-litter or in borrows, sometimes with arranged twigs and other litter around the entrance. However, these spiders tend to be quite mobile and move around, hunting as they go.

Stonera species

Besides the bright and distinct coloration of these spiders, the high and near vertical carapace (shown above) are characteristic of this genus. Goodbye Mrs Stonera, been nice meeting you!

A hunting Bardick Snake

2006-10-01T10:57:00.006+08:00

A hunting Bardick, Echiopsis curta.

Just the spot for an ambush!

Bardick Snake, Echiopsis curta

This is what the largely nocturnal Bardick, Echiopsis curta does, ie it ambushes its prey and in this instance probably a resident Moaning Frog, Heleioporus eyrei that can normally be found in the area. I returned a couple of hours later and the snake was in exactly the same position.

This small stout snake is reasonably common in SW Western Australia, but also occurs in a couple of areas in the Eastern States where it is regarded as rare/endangered. The slender neck, broad head and thick body makes this species quite distinctive. Preferred habitat is heath and mallee/spinifex, where lizards, frogs and sometimes mammals and birds make up its diet.

An attacking snake

2006-09-30T12:52:00.003+08:00

An advancing snake intent on attack!!!

But not a worry, it is only a legless lizard trying on a very big bluff. Better known as a Common Scaly-foot Lizard, or Pygopus lepidopodus. It was encountered in the morning on a sandy track and instead of quickly slithering into the vegetation on either side, decided to stay and bluff it out. It obviously worked because after taking my photos, it was me who moved along first.

Common Scaly-foot Lizard, Pygopus lepidopodus

Notice the rounded fleshy tongue, this is an obvious difference that separates these lizards from snakes that have slender forked ones. They occur across the southern part of Australia from the west to the east coast in heaths and open woodland. Their diet consists largely of arthropods particularly spiders and scorpions.